1859 - Fuller, F. Five Years' Residence in New Zealand - CHAPTER X. THE POLITICAL IMPORT OF CERTAIN IDEAS...

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CHAPTER X.

THE POLITICAL IMPORT OF CERTAIN IDEAS PREVAILING AMONG PERSONS LIVING ON FIXED INCOMES, CONTRASTED WITH THAT OF THOSE LIVING BY TRADING OR PRODUCING OCCUPATIONS.

THERE is on this head a great contrast of ideas, because one party feel interested in keeping up prices of articles generally, while the others think it is their business to keep the prices of all articles of consumption as low as possible. This is also the source of a division in political parties; and to those who are entering upon a new

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sphere of trading or producing occupations, after having passed a previous life of ease and pleasure, in the enjoyment of a good fixed income, it may be useful to relate the following contrasts of ideas in social and political matters, which prevail in the United Kingdom, but become materially modified by a residence in a colony. A school of philosophy, designated that of political economy, which has grown into a system within the last half century, must be applied to; for, however persons may disagree with the conclusions drawn from the arguments advanced by those writers, such a mass of statistics is accumulated and rendered accessible for the general public, by the writings of these philosophers, as to cause an acquaintance with their writings to be considered necessary for completing the education of persons destined for conducting the legislative business of the British empire. The tone of argument adopted in these writings is objected to by many, because the topic advanced for discussion is the increase of the material wealth of nations, independent of all moral considerations in doing so. This mode of writing cannot, therefore, but appear objectionable to those who deem the restoration of man's moral nature to be the main business of his life on earth, and who may justly deem that arguments advanced for man's material good, without consideration of his moral nature, are apt to convey erroneous ideas in instructing mankind. The love of riches is so inherent a desire in the human breast, that information on methods of obtaining riches, to be of real service to mankind, requires to be accompanied with instruction on the moral nature of the duties attendant on the possession of those riches; otherwise the melancholy, fallen condition of human

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nature, induces man too freely to dissipate riches, as soon as obtained, in a manner forgetful that they are a trust for which an account has to be rendered; and that the philosophy must therefore be a vain and unsatisfactory one which teaches man only how to obtain a present enjoyment, without the means of retaining it, and using it to God's glory, and man's true good. Among the arguments brought forward by the writers of this school, is the tendency of population to increase, so as to surpass the means of human subsistence, and this position has been strongly controverted, as appearing to convey to the uneducated portions of mankind untrue and indistinct ideas of the moral providence of a Creator and Ruler of the universe. Strong objections are also taken to this school of philosophy, on the ground that all the professions are treated in argument as contributing but slightly, if not detrimentally, to the progress of a nation in the accumulation of material wealth.

But, on the other hand, it is asserted these writers do not profess to bring forward all the considerations that ought to be before the minds of legislators when preparing the laws of a country, but merely to lay the philosophy of one part of those considerations only before their minds, leaving them to draw from other quarters the moral considerations attached to the subject. It is said that the real difficulty attendant on the comprehension of these writings arises from the want of a sufficiently general knowledge how the common trading and producing occupations of a country at large are conducted. Also that a comprehension of the troubles attending the trading and producing occupations requires a close attention and personal expe-

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rience in them, to obtain a comprehension of the difficulties that attend them, and that the nature of the arguments used by these writers cannot be sufficiently understood, without some personal experience in those occupations has been obtained. It is considered, therefore, the nation cannot afford to reject these writings as being unnecessary; for, though all in a nation are not required to be philosophers, any more than all in an army are required to be generals, nevertheless, a few of each have been always considered necessary, in their own sphere, to conduct operations with success.

The diminished proportion of the population of the British Isles engaged in agriculture is commented on in these writings. It is argued that though but a few centuries ago the bulk of the population were employed in agricultural pursuits, and even as late as half a century ago, the agricultural interest greatly predominated in the legislature of the country, still the proportion of the population now engaged in agriculture is estimated as being only one-fourth of the entire nation.

This is described generally as having come about by the small yeoman farmers of former times, with holdings of only a few acres, (finding themselves undersold by the larger holders in the prices of produce raised from the land), having sold their possessions, and afterwards either emigrated or taken service with the larger farmers, or joined the manufacturing population of towns. Then those owning the freehold of the properties next in size, up to a few hundred acres, finding they lived more comfortably in towns than in the country, on the rent they could obtain from others for the privilege of working their land, withdrew to live in the towns. These after-

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wards finding a better interest could be obtained for money invested in manufacturing or commercial pursuits, would gradually sell off their landed property to embark in these other pursuits, and these accordingly have centred, and are continuing to centre, the great bulk of the nation. Thus landed properties are now held generally among fewer proprietors, each of whom holds generally some thousands of acres, and those who rent the land from them find they can raise produce for sale more economically when holding large farms, than when holding small ones; because, by the aid of teams and machinery, a less number of workmen require to be employed, and there is consequently a larger surplus for sale after meeting the wants of the farm. Small farms over Great Britain, therefore, have been generally joined together into larger ones, which enables a greater surplus to be raised for the manufacturing population.

But the skill of the manufacturing portion of the population has been meanwhile increasing in many particular branches very greatly in advance of other nations of the earth, and other nations are willing to take those manufactures from them. But a difficulty is experienced in the mode of paying for them, for commerce between nations at large consists practically in an exchange of commodities, and is not the merely transferring a certain amount of the precious metals in payment for goods received. The manufacturing interest within the last quarter of a century, finding they could dispose of a larger amount of goods if they took payment in wheat, have brought about a change in the law, by which that commodity can be introduced without paying the customs duty previously levied upon it, which was said to

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favour unduly the agricultural interest. But in effecting this change a great disorganisation was brought about in the agricultural interest, which is one of the greatest interests in the country. Many individuals found this change in the law materially to alter the prospects they had in view for themselves and the families they were bringing up. Protective laws affecting other interests in the country about the same time were repealed.

Accordingly a strong, feeling for emigration arose among many who were in the position of employers of labour, in those interests, and public men in those interests, acquainted with that feeling, were enabled to start a new and interesting colony, viz., the Canterbury settlement. But it has been observed that all great changes in the laws, by withdrawing the protection heretofore granted to various trades or occupations of the country, disarrange so materially the calculations of many engaged in them, that a feeling for emigration is engendered, and people are rendered willing to hear the arguments brought forward in its favour, who would probably never before consider them. And this will happen both to the employers of labour and the employed, as both have been probably brought up to follow only one trade or occupation, and deem therefore their prospect of maintaining their relative position in society as jeopardized, when the protection they had been accustomed to is withdrawn, and this is more particularly experienced when the expenses of bringing up a large family adds to their anxieties.

The feeling of middle-aged persons generally is averse to leaving their native country. That step is seldom decided on until some stern necessity or pressure bears upon the individual; for the general feeling with man-

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kind, when satisfied with their position, is that a little with certainty and comfort is better than the risk which they picture to their minds as awaiting them in a colony. Timid, apprehensive persons, to whom the idea of colonization is personally disagreeable, often erroneously attribute to giddiness of disposition, or love of change, the desire to emigrate, and many such cases may be met with; but deeper views and higher considerations must rule with the bulk of those, not in want, who take a step attended with some violence to their feelings in parting with old scenes and associates. To those possessed of religious feelings, there are ample arguments to induce them to undertake that step. The simple desire to remove themselves, or those in whom they take interest, from scenes of temptation or restraint which they apprehend may be greater than they are able to bear, may sufficiently express the desire of those actuated with such feelings, in many cases. The agricultural labourer, whose change of position, if a steady workman, is attended with the greatest amount of benefit to himself in a temporal sense, is generally deterred by the want of money from meeting the expenses even of an outfit for himself and family; but though the more intelligent among them are not so difficult to be persuaded of the advantage of the change, still there are many to be found who look upon emigration with aversion, and regard their claim to be assisted by the poor-rates of their parish as a right to be valued, the loss of which ought not to be risked. But it may be observed, that the labouring classes generally, when once settled in a colony, seldom return to reside in England. By the upper ranks in the British Isles, doubtless, the colonies have generally been regarded as being but

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places to make money in, and to be resided in only for as short a time as possible; and this idea will probably continue to prevail with reference to colonies in the tropics, on account of the heat of the climate. But the climate of the colonies at the antipodes has agreed so well with so many delicate constitutions from Great Britain, and restored health to so many, that old residents from the upper ranks of life may be met there in such considerable numbers, that they form a sufficient society in themselves, and do not care about returning to live in Great Britain. Moreover, the restraints in dress and manners in the society of old-settled countries often prove troublesome to those who have resided long in new colonies. Besides, the density of the population of the British Isles, the crowd of people pushing against each other in the competition for existence, do not convey pleasing ideas to the mind of a colonist, who has often felt the want and knows the desire that exists for population in the colony in which he had resided. The great proportion of elderly persons everywhere met with, prone to bring up the ideas of bygone centuries, and the loss or removal of the friends and acquaintances of early days, all tend to remove that intense interest and affection with which many in the upper ranks of life have been accustomed to regard their society in the British Isles, previous to a residence in a new healthy and thriving colony. Nevertheless, to recruit their pecuniary resources, with the intention of returning to England to enjoy them, will doubtless continue to be the prevailing idea with the great majority of those born in the upper ranks of life who leave England to try a young colony in the hope of obtaining an independence.

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Thus we may suppose that a young man brought up in a circle where habits are expensive, might fairly consider that he would require an income approaching to £1000 a year to enable him to marry and enjoy himself in that circle. Ten years later in life, when satisfied he should not have anxiety in providing for a family, half the above income he might consider would suffice his wants, particularly if he retired to a country district. But an income of £1000 a year in the upper circles is hardly sufficient to bring up a large family of, say, eight or ten in number, and to place them out in the world, without feeling anxiety. The sons would generally associate with those whose future incomes would so greatly exceed what they were likely to obtain from their parents, that they would feel themselves placed at considerable disadvantage when grown up and taking care of themselves, without they were placed out in a profession. But the professions, again, are considered overstocked, from the pressure upwards of the middle classes. Now, the expense of educating a son for a profession is generally considered to approach £1000 before he is clear of the parent's hands and earning his livelihood. If it is considered, again, how many parents have it not in their power to make an outlay of £1000 in the education of each of their sons, it may be understood why it happens that so many young men, well born and well bred, have been sent out to the colonies at the antipodes, at an age before they had acquired those desires and expensive habits which are contracted by associating with persons in more affluent circumstances, particularly in town life.

Another view in which this principle may be said to be adopted is--that the young man may be expected to

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be more disposed than his elders to suit himself to the rougher life at the colonial occupations, whether it be in sheep-farming or otherwise; so that when the parents are satisfied that he understands a business, and is able to take care of money, and invest it with advantage to himself, that they can then send him his portion, with the hope that even that little may be sufficient to place him, ultimately, in a position of independence. This perhaps, applies well to clergymen or others in rural districts, who can bring their sons up hardily in the country, educate them chiefly at home, and then start them for the colony.

It may be observed that the Canterbury colony has attracted the sons of clergymen numerously, and that the families of clergymen, being among the most agreeable, have a great lead in the society of the place.

But many young men have been sent to the colonies with a good portion of the fortune they may ultimately hope to possess, but with no previous experience in business. All this money, therefore, in many cases, has soon been lost to them. £1500 has been sent with a youth of nineteen, who, though not at all prone to dissipation, and with plenty of friends to advise him, found he had run through it all in the course of six years. And larger sums in a less period have been lost by older men, from want of previous experience in business. The better course therefore, appears to be, for parents or guardians to avoid leaving it in the power of very young and inexperienced men to waste their money upon first arrival, by either allowing them, proportionately, a yearly income, or arranging that the money they take to the colony is invested out at interest, on sufficient securities, for the first few years

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after their arrival. And this was early seen to be exemplified in the circumstance that there were many young men living on the stations working for hire, who were also in receipt of small incomes from the United Kingdom. Young men, with a capital of less than £1000, have placed themselves in a position to take a wife without any feelings of anxiety in doing so, in five years after starting, considering they have laid the foundation of a valuable property, and were then in receipt of a fair income from it; but this of course implies they had served some apprenticeship before starting on their own account. And this prospect is being daily considered preferable by many in the United Kingdom, who, living together as a large family for a few years, spending perhaps £1000 a-year in a continual round of balls and gaiety, have the prospect before them, that the division of property at the death, of the parents will give but one or two thousand pounds to each of the family, which is not a pleasing anticipation when persons have been brought up to view with aversion trading or producing occupations.

But this is the case with many families in the gay world, with whom the state of marriage must be looked upon as a misfortune, without there is property on the other side of the alliance. The elder ones in such families often feel the life to be irksome, and from a feeling of duty do go abroad, in order that they may have a better prospect for themselves, and with a hope also of being able to help their younger relatives.

The choosing of a colonial life may, therefore, more often proceed from causes of a moral nature than is generally supposed, and is not always fairly to be attributed to the mere desire of making money. How

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do the ideas of those, born to struggle in early life to obtain any position of comparative independence, contrast with those who have been born and brought up in easy circumstances, in the view they take regarding the management of their families?

Thus while the former may be seen inculcating habits of self-reliance, eagerly enquiring into all modes by which people obtain their livelihood, or better their circumstances--and appearing to view the settlement of their children in positions of comparative independence, able to take a wife and bring up a family as the great desire of their lives--giving their attention to saving their money, and employing their time with that object in view--the latter may but too often be seen inculcating in their children that a personal attendance upon, and a deference to, the wishes of their parents, is the highest of human virtues, and one which should occupy a place in their minds superior to all others. And further, is it not erroneous to see parents, far advanced in age, jealous of their children, though grown into middle age, making endeavours to settle themselves in a position of more independence than the family house presents? Considering, that in return for the bringing up of their children, and introducing them to the pleasures and luxuries of life, they are entitled to demand these children's attendance upon them during their lifetime; though doing so may entail a great probability that the future period of their own lives must be passed in the state of single blessedness, and of comparative unprofitableness to society at large!

Elderly parents, who have lived in easy circumstances, are prone to remember what was taught them when they were young by their parents on the necessity

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and dignity of the outward appearances they presented to the world, and thus the ideas of a bygone century are generally regarded by those possessed of long-descended wealth, throughout the world, as those which ought to be followed. And when the families of those brought up in such ideas find themselves obliged, by the loss of their incomes, to enter the general battle of life for their livelihood, with those accustomed to contend in it from childhood, they find themselves placed at a great disadvantage, and that they have much to learn. The man of fashion is, therefore, found to have a very different view of the utility of the marriage state to that possessed by the man of business.

Perhaps one chief disadvantage that attends the bringing up of children exclusively at home, as it is experienced in colonial life, may be said to be, that persons thus brought up have acquired a habit of leaning upon others; that is to say, they count too much on the assistance which others may render them, instead of learning to make their plans independent of receiving assistance from other people; because the fluctuation of prices, and the general instability of human wealth, may render persons who may at one time be able to afford assistance in pecuniary matters or otherwise, to other people, afterwards to be temporarily unable to do so, and thus those who, in pursuing their occupations in the colonies, lay their plans as depending on assistance to be received from others, will frequently find themselves to be very much thrown out in their calculations.

The necessity of personal exertions, bodily and mental, in all the occupations of colonial life at the antipodes, beget a habit of self-reliance, and a love of

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independence, in those possessed of energetic dispositions, who feel that these are correct principles for regulating their conduct, and are necessary for obtaining success in trading or producing occupations. These principles, therefore, they desire to instil into all brought under their influence by the ties of friendship or relationship. Nothing acts more strongly against these ideas than the customs of the feudal ages. The two periods are in violent antagonism to one another. A colonist, whose mind is given to his new country, (ever keeping progress in view), feels that a recurrence to the ideas of those ages thwart him, and check all hope of advancing in material progress in a new country if introduced there, and this feeling originates in families a great antagonism of ideas, which is exhibited during the visits of colonists to their friends in England. For it must "be admitted that of late years a portion of the upper ranks of English society have shown some admiration for institutions drawn from feudal times, of a monastic nature. With a colonist monasticism or asceticism is not connected with the purer feelings of a religious life, but is regarded rather as antagonistic to it, leading to narrow views and sectarian prejudices, and indicating a decay of public spirit, rather than a desire for social progress.

It is remembered that monastic institutions were known in the heathen world long before the introduction of Christianity, and still prevail in the regions of Buddhism, and have therefore no necessary connection with Christianity; while the enormous abuses that attended them during the feudal ages caused Protestant Christianity to drive them out with violence. It was well known that, though begun under vows of poverty,

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they had accumulated enormous properties; and as it was considered that throughout the Roman communion the attention of those superintending these institutions was mainly directed to obtaining the favour of wealthy persons who they desired to join their institution, in order that it might become possessed of their property, it is thought to be incongruous, and that it ought to be unpalatable to the feelings of Protestant England, that such institutions should be revived in the present day; for the laws and general policy of the country are so formed as to prevent the necessity of recurring to them by enacting a legal provision for the poor, and an established clergy for their spiritual guidance. Moreover, a colonist feels a higher line, in a religious sense, is taken by those who proceed to open up new countries for the hard-worked portion of the labouring population of the United Kingdom, which the improved modes of education that now prevail among them better fit them to enjoy; for new healthy countries must afford greater facilities to them for obtaining material comforts when they are disposed to be steady and to work for them, than the crowded condition of old-settled countries permits. Therefore when, as in some cases, it is found that a life involving celibacy, in institutions framed after mediaeval models, is taught young persons as presenting higher aims than accepting proposals to proceed to a young colony, where many are willing and eager to receive them as friends, such views are protested against. Moreover, it is felt that the action of submitting the will to the direction, if not dictation, of other persons, which is usual in conventual establishments, begets a habit of losing the sense of individual responsibility in weak minds, and those whose minds are the purest and

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the most innocent from their simplicity, become the most exposed to this danger. Again, it is felt that establishments of this nature do introduce discord into families which are possessed of property, when members of it join them, frustrating the internal economy of their arrangements. It is known at the present day, that young persons are induced to join these establishments, when they are desired to stay in their families to take care of aged parents, or to keep house for relatives who desire them. Colonists, therefore, only view as a melancholy prospect the admiration which is expressed at the present revival of these institutions, and consider that if parents exerted themselves a little more to change the scenes and occupations of their family, instead of maintaining them constantly as attendants on aged persons, the attention of young persons might be turned to more suitable employments; it being matter of general observation that the ideas and feelings of most persons undergo a great change at least every ten years of their lives.

It may be useful to consider how families, not acquainted with trading or producing occupations, generally invest their money, so as to live upon a fixed income, in order to show how many have been brought to consider of the field which is presented by young colonies for recruiting their pecuniary resources, and to contend with some prejudices in the world of fashion.

Difficulties often arise in the pecuniary arrangements of families living in the gay world, retired from a professional life, and without any knowledge of trading or producing occupations from the mode of investing their capital. This is generally at first placed in the funds, but, as expenses increase, there is a desire to change the

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mode of investment, in order to obtain a larger income, and thus a railway, or other business conducted by a public company, which is paying, probably, at the time, a much higher rate of interest than the funds give, is generally chosen to transfer a part of their capital to, in order to increase their yearly income. But this rate of interest is always varying. Public companies of this nature sometimes pay nothing at all for year after year, and their shares fall in the market to less than half their original value. If, therefore, persons depending for their income upon money invested partly in the funds and partly in a public company, find the latter is paying no interest, and that they cannot reduce their personal expenditure, they most probably sell out of the funds, and thus reduce their capital. But the inducements to do this may be strong; for parents often deem the probabilities of placing their children out in the world to advantage to be much increased by maintaining appearances before it, and, as this is probably particularly desired, more of the money invested in the funds may be transferred to another public company, in the hope of meeting yearly expenses.

But this other company may also fail in paying dividends, as did the first. A fresh sale of capital again ensues; and this may be repeated again and again, until the family have found that what they considered but a reasonable endeavour to maintain a proper appearance in society has resulted in serious losses of their capital.

The remarks of men of business acquainted with the nature of public companies, with reference to such cases, are of the following nature:-- That men retired from a professional life had better keep their money invested in the Funds, or other permanent securities

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giving a fixed, even though it be a small, rate of interest; and that they should make up their minds always to live within that income, whatever may be the inducements at any time to exceed it: because the watching of the rates of interest and the market value of the shares of public companies is a study in itself; and unless persons, from previous experience in business, are able to keep a close scrutiny on its management, they cannot hope continuously to derive a yearly income from the dividends of a public company. It is said that the rate of dividends and consequent value of the shares of public companies is of so fluctuating a nature, that persons ought never to depend for their incomes upon them alone (though many trade and make large fortunes by buying and selling shares). Persons not personally experienced in their business should view the investing of their money in a public company as applying only to the savings of their yearly incomes; for it often requires a few years at first starting to learn the most economical mode of managing the concern, and those who have the management of other people's money are more likely to make greater outlays at starting than if they were superintending only the laying out of their own. The market price of shares in most public companies is therefore apt to fall soon after commencing operations, and it generally happens that then is the best time for persons purposing to invest to buy shares.

But a fall in the market value of shares may be long kept off, as has been frequently shown in railway companies, by paying dividends out of the subscribed capital. Still, all companies are subject to fluctuations in the value of their shares, in the natural course of commer-

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cial operations; and those who entirely depend upon them require other fields for investing their reduced capital before, bound it may be by the spell of fashion, it is entirely exhausted. It is, however, very erroneous to suppose that losses in money affairs necessarily imply imputations upon individual character, because circumstances really differ in every case.

It may be mentioned, also, that a sense of wrong sustained from their superiors has induced persons in all ages to emigrate, as well as the lower consideration of pecuniary advantages, though the latter may be the ostensible cause related. The quiet characters in a young community may remain unnoticed, while the peculiarities of the obtrusive, which are noised abroad by the local newspapers, are supposed by the timid and apprehensive to indicate the general character of the society, and are often used to dissuade others joining them. A strict moral tone may, however, be observed, though much in outward appearances or mode of life be altered.

To feel happy and live contented in any part of the world, persons must live within their incomes; but those who have been born and brought up in the receipt of comfortable incomes all their lives, possess very different ideas on the nature and value of trading and producing occupations from those who have been brought up to prepare themselves for their vicissitudes. How often may it be seen that parents who, from being born to the possession of fixed comfortable incomes, and never having had occasion themselves to contend in the world for the necessaries of life, do not appear to consider there is any necessity for an early training of their children to teach them how to contend with it, even when they know they have not that sufficient

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amount of private property which would enable all their children to live with comfort, independent of some profession or occupation! On the contrary, they bring them up so delicately and sensitively, that when placed out in the world to take care of themselves, the slightest trials and temptations, which others have learned to bear and withstand, overcome them. This is sometimes increased by a theological view, that avoiding the evil ways of the world implies avoidance of all amusements, which men are prone to abuse; the consequences of which are perceived when young men who have been brought up in a very retired and secluded manner are suddenly placed in positions open to great excitement and temptations, as is often the case when they enter the military or naval services of the country, or the wilder scenes of colonial life. A wild and excited manner may become, therefore, habitual to them, which is often unfavourably contrasted with the demeanour of those who have been early accustomed to view those scenes. It must be remarked, however, that, in matters of amusement, what proves to be great temptations to some people, are but ordinary recreations to others. It is a ground of argument in Bishop Butler's reasonings, that men in one rank of life are not competent judges of the acts of those in another. If, therefore, men in a lower sphere of life attempt to judge correctly of men in a higher sphere, they must often err in their opinions, because they cannot know all the reasons that are present to the minds of these others in the determining of their conduct. And persons in the lower occupations of life should be careful not to draw adverse opinions of those in positions above themselves, whom they may see occasionally joining in occupations and

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amusements that prove too exciting for themselves to follow.

The system of political representation in the British Isles may be now considered as it contrasts with that of New Zealand: for the employers of labour have not the same influence in determining an election as in the United Kingdom, and they consequently become more alarmed when representatives of the people appeal to their passions in order to carry out the policy they desire for the colony, or to obtain possession of office for themselves.

In one branch of the public business of Great Britain --viz., that of making laws and conducting the government of the country--the service of the public offices, particularly in the higher departments, appears to run very much among a few families; but this appears to be only in accordance with the general law of subdivision of labour which runs throughout the common business of the country: for those accustomed to conduct the service of the offices governing the country state that the knowledge necessary to be gained for their proper conduct requires not only considerable time and attention, but the command of considerable pecuniary resources, as obtaining the information which is required involves a very general mixing in the society of persons whose pecuniary resources are great, and who require, therefore, some appearance to be maintained in those they meet. And not only is there great trouble and expense occasioned in learning the laws of the country, and the feelings that prevail in the different classes constituting its own society, but also a very general acquaintance is required of the circumstances of several foreign countries. Those, therefore, who have acquired high posi-

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tions by gaining the confidence of their fellow-countrymen in the conduct of public affairs, have done so not only by the employment of much individual mental labour, but also by a large personal expenditure. And the want of private fortune where there is sufficient mental ability, in persons born in humbler circumstances, must tend to keep the higher offices connected with the government of any free populous country generally in the hands of men born and brought up in the possession of large pecuniary means for very few born in humble circumstances attain any high positions in the conduct of the government of a country, though the laws may leave it open to all to do so.

When men from the lower ranks of life, therefore, conceive themselves competent to enter into the struggle for possession of the higher offices of the public service of Great Britain, they do not always consider that the principles of competition, with which they have to contend in the lower sphere, exist equally in the upper ranks; and that many of the highest rank retire from the endeavour for political positions who have been educated and brought up for them, solely on the ground of want of sufficient pecuniary resources to continue the contest. The possession of power in public offices is equally desired by persons of all political parties, and those born to possession of wealth will generally contend successfully with those not possessed of it. The contention for possessing political power is, perhaps, as keen among those whose circumstances allow them to be brought up to contend for it, as is competition in all the general trading business of a populous country; and the leaders of all the parties must be possessed of considerable pecuniary resources: but when these are

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joined, in those of advanced age, to the possession of high political authority, brusquerie, and a haughtiness of manner to younger but rising men, has frequently broken up the parties or combinations that they have headed for carrying on the government of the country. For it is a principle in the representative institutions of the United Kingdom, that a representative of the people should be able to demand information from all the public offices; and when young men feel they are honestly giving their time and attention to master the details of the different points of policy in the measures on which they have to pronounce an opinion, and find these endeavours are thwarted--they must consider that their hopes of raising themselves to eminence are unfairly interrupted, and this generally leads to withdrawing their confidence from those leaders.

The advanced age of many persons holding high public offices in Great Britain is often the cause of wonder to a colonist. It contrasts greatly with the circumstances of young countries, where a considerable amount of personal activity, great command of temper, and general accessibility for personal conference, is required for the successful prosecution of public business; while the array of clerks, and the general subdivision of business into the different departments customary in the public offices established in Great Britain, is not required in a thinly-peopled country.

It may be said, generally, that the elaborate laws required by a populous country are unnecessary to a country thinly-peopled, where the possession of abundance among the lower classes diminishes the temptation to violate the common law of honesty. Nevertheless the "inherited anxieties" entertained by holders of

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property in the British isles, lest their rights should be invaded, accompanies them to New Zealand, where the larger proportion of the lower classes upon the electoral roll causes apprehension whenever the demagogue tries to enlist their sympathies in his engrossing schemes, and causes some of the greater safeguards of the British constitution to be desired. But these apprehensions are deemed by the mass of the community to be unnecessary; for the yeoman class are not in want, or influenced in their judgments by a sense of obligation to powerful or wealthy proprietors, and can form a fair judgment of the capabilities of their representatives. The possession of wealth, moreover, is not required in the candidate for representative honours in New Zealand, where his general acquaintance with business and personal character are almost solely inquired for by his constituents. Representatives are paid for their work when taken away from their homes, and comprise many who have risen by steady exertion from the ranks of labour. Lawyers are greatly in demand, but their business is chiefly confined to the conveyancing of property, or drawing out financial agreements, for little of criminal law enters into their practice.

Another principle of the representative institutions of the United Kingdom is, that representatives of the people represent interests, and not merely numbers, in the population, which is necessary to protect the rights of property. Great political power can only be fairly granted to a representative assembly on the ground that the members represent nearly all the different occupations constituting the industry of the country. Rural districts must, therefore, have fewer voters for the representatives than the towns possess. The in-

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fluence of a landowner in determining an election, consequently, greatly increases with the size of his property.

The habit of landowners has, therefore, been to continue the custom of leaving all their property to the eldest son, as was the rule in feudal times, because the eldest son thereby has greater influence in determining an election, and is therefore rendered better able to provide for the younger branches of the family, in some of the public offices of the country. But this is not just cause of complaint to other classes, because men are required for the service of the public offices, just as well as for the trading and producing occupations, which constitute its chief bulk and as all persons require some security for the tenure of the offices which constitutes their subsistence, in order to educate and prepare themselves for filling them properly, the nation is supposed to be better served by certain families in it devoting themselves to the service of its public offices only. But the entailing of landed property is unpopular with the lower classes in many nations. The laws of the United Kingdom restrict it to a few generations; but those of France, at the first revolution of 1792, obliged all landed properties to be equally divided at the death of the parents, and thus it was supposed permanently to prevent the possibility of a large landed aristocracy ever rising again in that country. However, it is observed in the United Kingdom, that the feelings engendered by the practice of entail incline the younger sons of country gentry to place little value on a general knowledge of the laws of the country, considering that a knowledge of the laws of property appertain only to those who possess the property to apply it to and that those who have distinct laws for themselves, as belong-

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ing to the different professions, need not concern themselves about the laws of other professions.

Writers on the laws of England, therefore, observe on the want of this knowledge that generally prevails among the gentry of England, and urge that attention to the principles on which the laws are founded are incumbent upon them, though the details of practice must be left to professional men. In a young colony persons start occupations, employing labour, without having previously been employers of labour. It is not unusual, therefore, to see them beaten on simple points of law, in differences they may have with those they employ. Short compendiums on the laws of England, or writings on the principles on which they are founded, become therefore to be valued by many who would never think of reading on the subject before.

In the military professions, a knowledge of civil law is proverbially considered as being superfluous, and as a matter with which persons in those professions have no concern; but those whose livelihood depends upon trading or producing occupations find it necessary to keep up a general knowledge of the laws of the empire, and to observe the changes that are made in them: accordingly, colonists retired from those professions often find they make great blunders, from their preconceived ideas on the value of a knowledge of civil law, of which they often have much to learn; for the principle of honour enters largely in forming judgments on questions relating to military law, while written or witnessed agreements are only admitted as evidence in civil law.

It may also be related, that in the commercial world it is observed that clergymen and retired military men do not usually make good investments of their money,

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when first entering upon producing occupations, which is attributed to the desire for maintaining appearances in those professions; and that following a purely governmental office life likewise leads to the erroneous idea of expecting always immediate returns from money laid out in those pursuits, when experience shows that in new countries several years may frequently elapse before a large income is obtained from those occupations, when the capital with which they have been begun is small, and the habit of avoiding to spend money has to be acquired, as the introduction to the art of making money. Nevertheless, to induce persons to view colonial occupations favourably, it may be stated that a large proportion of the incomes of many families who enter into the fashion, and spend largely in the gaiety, of the metropolis, is known to be drawn from properties or occupations which they possess in some of the distant colonies of the kingdom.

Observations allied to those contained in this chapter can be usefully applied in contrasting the ideas which are generally entertained among those who are born and brought up in easy circumstances, with those who have to contend in the world for their livelihood, and may serve to explain to the former some of the sources which impede their progress, when first entering upon the business of trading or producing occupations; for it may be said generally, that ideas of utility, profit and loss, enter chiefly into the views of the latter, while those of appearances and old family traditions enter chiefly into the views of the former, of which they find it is necessary to lose their accustomed regard, in order to become proper men of business.