New Zealand: Its Emigration and Gold Fields

George Butler Earp

First published by George Routledge and Co. in 1853

Digitised and made available online by the University of Auckland Libraries and Learning Services.

Epub © 2013 Early New Zealand Books Collection

ISBN 978-1-927279-95-3

[TITLE PAGES]

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NEW ZEALAND

NEW ZEALAND:
ITS
EMIGRATION AND GOLD FIELDS.

BY
GEORGE BUTLER EARP,
AUTHOR OF "GOLD COLONIES OF AUSTRALIA;" FORMERLY MEMBER OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF NEW ZEALAND.

With a Map

LONDON:
GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND CO.,
FARRINGDON STREET.
1853.

London:

Printed by STEWART and MURRAY,

Old Bailey.

[INTRODUCTION]

INTRODUCTION.

The object of the following book is to supply intending emigrants with the information requisite to enable them to effect their purpose certainly and economically, and at the same time to give them such an outline of the colony to which they are proceeding, as may reasonably assure them as to their future prospects when arrived at that colony. There are books without number descriptive of all our colonies, but the perusal of the generality of these administers rather to the gratification of curiosity than to the real requirements of the intending colonist; viz., How he should set about emigrating. This knowledge is his first want, and without this he is often undecided as to what course he shall adopt; or, to his serious cost, becomes involved in an expenditure of time and means, the latter especially, which would prove a small capital to him if saved for the purposes of his future career as a colonist.

My qualifications for this object are, a pretty long experience in the colonies of the South Pacific, and, what is more to the emigrant's purpose, a still longer experience in despatching emigrants from the mother country. The following remarks are chiefly confined to New Zealand, that being the colony with which I am most conversant; but those remarks which are

intended to afford information to the emigrant relative to his own shipment, are applicable to all southern emigration, as is the advice volunteered for his consideration relative to his individual conduct as a colonist.

The emigrant must not, therefore, expect picturesque descriptions of scenery, though New Zealand, beyond most other countries, abounds in picturesque beauty; nor must he look for those narratives of personal adventure with which it is the fashion to season colonial books: wherever such are given, it will be with the object of giving the reader some idea of native peculiarities or customs. These matters are extraneous, and, though amusing, as giving scope to a considerable amount of imagination both as regards the writer and the reader, will here altogether be lost sight of. It is merely necessary to remind the intending emigrant of the present day, that he will have no adventures to encounter. The way has been paved for him, and the first difficulties of the colony surmounted. The forest has already, in a great degree, given way to the corn-field; and the cannibal has become also, to a great degree, the civilized man and the Christian – in name, if not in reality; and even this is an important step forward.

The intention of this little work is to awaken the middle and labouring classes of this country to a sense of their own position with respect to the future, as regards this country, and, at the same time, to point out to them the way to escape from that future, whilst they have either small capital or strength to labour left. There is no apparent way whereby to escape from impending evil, but by emigrating. This must become a system – not an accident: a system, not only of men ceasing to be useless in their own country from want, – not of intention, but of opportunity to be useful, – but also of converting themselves into the future employers of those they leave behind. "One colonist," says Sir Josiah Child, "employs four of the mother country." Not that the emigrant needs to make this a point of conscience; but such will be its effect. He himself will become comparatively independent, instead of being a burden;

and those he leaves behind will benefit in a double sense by his removal: he and his family, though in a distant part of the empire, will ascend in the social scale; whilst he will be a means of preventing many of those whom he leaves at home from sinking. These objects are worthy of deep consideration.

Things in England cannot much longer continue as they have been: somebody must move off. The question, therefore, becomes – Who will go? The prudent man will reply, "I will, whilst I have something left: if I wait, I shall have nothing wherewith to emigrate." Reason as we may, this is the true mode of looking at the matter. We have before us a choice of evils: a remodification of society by a redistribution of society into different parts of the empire, or a convulsion of society, which will go far to overthrow all posterity. As the lamented Charles Buller has said, but in more eloquent language, "We shall not cease to be Britons because we remove from one part of the empire where we are too thick, to another where we are too thin."

It, therefore, behoves every one to ask himself the question – "Am I in the way?" If the querent feel that he is so, let him make up his mind to go. If he feel that he can surmount all difficulties, by all means let him stay. Every man is the best judge of his own capabilities; and by his own judgment let him stand or fall.

G. B. E.

AUSTRALIAN GAZETTE OFFICE,
London, May 1853.

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[CONTENTS]

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

WHY SHOULD PEOPLE EMIGRATE?

Children a fortune in a colony – Middle class emigration – Small capitalists – Small capital of no use at home – Reluctance to emigrate – Previous education the best capital for emigrants...........page.1

CHAPTER II.

THE ENDS TO BE OBTAINED BY EMIGRATION.

No sudden fortunes to be looked for by emigration to an industrial colony – A colonist's success rests with himself – Struggles at home for a living – Labour the most valuable commodity in a colony – Advantages of the Southern Colonies – The emigrant's mission..........page.9

CHAPTER III.

THE CLIMATE OF NEW ZEALAND, AND THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE GENERALLY.

Mean temperature – Mildness of southern climates – Continental climates – Diseases – Seasons – Fruits, vegetables – Winds – Meteorology.............page.17

CHAPTER IV.

OUTLINE SKETCH OF NEW ZEALAND.

Geographical features – Middle Island – North Island – Character of soil – Mountains – General aspect ......page.34

CHAPTER V.

AUCKLAND.

First colonists – French attempt – Harbours of Auckland – Rivers – The town – Streets – Public buildings – Story of Makatu – Natural scenery – Suburbs – Timber – Soil – Society – Dress – Amusements – Servants – Prices – Friendship with the Natives – Religious and Educational Establishments ..........page.43

CHAPTER VI.

Geological sketches of the province of New Ulster – Secondary formations – Tertiary and recent deposits – Metalliferous deposits, mineral veins, &c – localities of minerals and metals......page.68

CHAPTER VII.

WELLINGTON.

Harbour of Port Nicholson – Natural scenery – Petoni – Rural districts – Population – Stock – Manufactures – Schools and churches – Statistics – Imports and exports – Whale fishing – Description of Wellington – Extract from a recent letter – Overland journey from Auckland to Port Nicholson – Kupanga – Mount Edgecumbe – Mineral Springs of Roturua – Tongariro ...........page.89

CHAPTER VIII.

THE VALLEY Or THE WAIRARAPA.

Description of the valley – The Ruamahunga – Sheep and cattle breeding – Climate – Vegetation – Management of stock – Grapes – Shrubs – Fruits – New Zealand flax........page.112

CHAPTER IX.

NELSON AND THE WAIRAU.

Blind Bay – Massacre Bay – Country surrounding Nelson – Roads – Climate – Population – The natives – The Wairau – Port Underwood – Newton Bay-Queen Charlotte's Sound – Milton Bay – The Pelorus – Mr. Ward's letters – Farming estimates, &c........page.134.

CHAPTER X.

NEW PLYMOUTH.

The Taranaki district – Formation of the Plymouth Company – Productiveness of the settlement – Want of a harbour – Society of New Plymouth – Population – Institutions – High price of land – Mineral treasures – Recent letter – The natives – Crops – Prices........page.167

CHAPTER XI.

OTAGO.

Foundation of the Otago settlement – Progress – Pastures – Site of New Edinburgh – Surrounding country – Otago harbour – The River Clutha – Climate – Soil – Pastures – Products – Land and water communication – Coal – The natives........page.178

CHAPTER XII.

CANTERBURY.

Plan of the Canterbury Association – Probable progress of Canterbury – The Wakefield system – Evils of absenteeism – High price of land – The "self-supporting system" – Site of the settlement – Port Cooper – Society at Canterbury – Advice as to purchasing land........page.195

CHAPTER XIII.

HINTS PREVIOUS TO THE VOYAGE.

Best time for sailing – Provisions – Cabin furniture – Tools – Agricultural implements – Punctuality in sailing – Remitting money – Wooden houses for emigrants – Situation of a dwelling – Ventilation............page.211

CHAPTER XIV.

THE OUTFIT.

Advice in outfitting – Choice of clothing – Lists of necessary articles – Trunks – Bedding........page.221

CHAPTER XT.

FIRST STEPS IN THE COLONY.

Conduct on the voyage – Choice of occupation – Cultivation of the soil – Small farms – Agricultural labourers – Sheep and cattle farming – Squatting – Wages – Economical living – Useless expenditure...........page.233

CHAPTER XVI.

AGRICULTURE AND LAND-CLEARING.

Remarks by a backwoodsman – Experimental agriculture – Modes of clearing land – Canadian method – Combination of labour...............page.241

CHAPTER XVII.

THE AUCKLAND GOLD FIELDS.

Discovery of gold – Rev. Mr. Clarke's opinion – Rich specimen – Government regulations – Visit of the Lieutenant-Governor – Payments to natives – Progress of the diggings – Gold at Arataonga – Committee's report – Lieut.-Governor's, report........page.245

CHAPTER I. WHY SHOULD PEOPLE EMIGRATE?

NEW ZEALAND.

CHAPTER I.

WHY SHOULD PEOPLE EMIGRATE?

Children a fortune in a colony – Middle class emigration – Small capitalists – Small capital of no use at home – Reluctance to emigrate – Previous education the best capital for emigrants.

To the labouring man the answers to this question are obvious. The numbers of his class have rapidly increased in an inverse ratio to the productive capabilities of his country, in which, from its over population, he can no longer obtain a fair day's wages for a fair day's work; nay more, the difficulty with him is often to obtain work or wages at all, in which case, he must either depend for subsistence during a portion of his time upon the sympathy of friends and relatives, a shade better off than himself; or these failing him, he has no other alternative than the Poor Law Union; – to the latter alternative he must, in too many cases, succumb towards the end of his life. What kind of an object is this to urge a man forward throughout the health and strength of his existence – to know that he is only working, in order that he may become a pauper at its close? 1

CHILDREN A FORTUNE IN A COLONY.

In our colonies are neither Poor Law Unions, want of employment, low wages, nor any other of the causes which at home depress the energies and embitter the existence of the labouring man. On the contrary, there is scarcely a colony in which the cry is not, "Send us labour, we cannot progress for the want of it. Why will people remain without employment when, by emigrating, all anxiety on this head will disappear for ever?"

There is a yet higher ground than mere personal benefit which will come home to the mind of the labouring man, in whose class all the social affections are deeply implanted. What hope has he, the father of a family, that his offspring will turn out well in life? Very little indeed. He can only bequeath to them his own impoverished condition. He may set them an honest and praiseworthy example, yet is it ten to one but that subsequent circumstances will nullify this example. In the present state of society, no labouring man can look upon a numerous family of children and not fear that he has been adding something to social degradation, if not to crime. Emigration, no matter to what colony, will remove all fear of social degradation, and – except to minds naturally vicious – all temptations to crime, by providing labour and its just remuneration. Instead of his children becoming a burden to him, they will become, and that speedily, a source of comparative independence. A colonist may say with the Psalmist, "Children and the fruit of the womb are an heritage of the Lord. Blessed is he who hath his quiver full of them." If that be said to him in his present state in this country, it is only a bitter mockery of his degraded and impoverished condition.

The serious question, then, with regard to the family of a labouring man is this: Shall I, by remaining where I am, in-

MIDDLE CLASS EMIGRATION.

voluntarily expose my children to poverty and temptation, or shall I, by voluntarily removing to new lands, remove them, together with myself, beyond the reach of both? The question is a serious one, and upon the practical reply depends the future welfare of the labourer and of his descendants.

Let the labouring man recall to mind the condition of those of his own class who have emigrated. If he have no connections of this kind, his neighbours have. Is not the tenor of their letters home, "Come out to us, why will you stay at home and starve, when you might place yourselves in a position to command your own self-respect, and the respect of those around you?" It would be scarcely possible to put this book into the hands of any labouring man who cannot refer to instances of this kind. It is, for the most part, his want of the habits of reflection and decision which prevents him from wishing to follow their example.

But how is the labouring man to get out to a colony? The Government of this country has no system for sending him there, except as a felon, after having gone to an expense in training him up in vice, which would have more than sufficed to place him and his whole family in honest respectability. This is a singular anomaly in our social system, but the labourer cannot alter it, and the legislature will not. We must, therefore, look to some other means for the purpose of compassing his settlement as a colonist.

And here we will address ourselves to another class of persons whose best interests consist in emigration; viz., to those of the middle class who have no profitable occupation, but whose relatives and friends are able and willing to advance them a sum sufficient to establish them as colonists, upon an estate of their own; and also to those who possess a capital, small enough to be useless to them in this country, but which would be amply sufficient to place them in industrial independence in a colony.

The class to which we now address ourselves is very numerous, perhaps more so in comparison than that of the labouring

SMALL CAPITALISTS.

man. And what possible inducement have they to remain at home? Oh, "something will turn up," say they. What is that something? Where is it? The condition of the country is not such as to afford reasonable grounds for the expectation of eventual respectability to the mass, though accident may favour a few. This is hoping against hope, as steady reflection would not fail to convince them. How much more consistent would it be with a spirit of independence in the first of the two classes named, to avail themselves of the assistance of their connections in placing themselves in a position to become, not only less of a burden, but a positive advantage to their relatives.

No dependent man can maintain that self-reliance without which it is impossible to prosper. To be tolerated, because he cannot be got rid of, is no very enviable position to a man of spirit, were he brought to regard his own position as he really stands in the eyes of others. Pride, one of the most valuable qualities in man, when well directed, is a very sorry basis upon which to fall back if ill-directed. But from this position it is impossible that young men in this country, however energetic, and however desirous they may be to better their condition, should extricate themselves. They are the victims of an artificial state of society which compels them to unprofitable inaction, in spite of their wishes to the contrary; from which unprofitable inaction there is no means of escape but by transplanting themselves into a new society in which no artificial obstacles to their well-being exist.

To the second of these classes, viz,, those whose only reliance is on a small capital, the subject of emigration is of still greater importance. Their capital dwindled away, what is there to prevent them, or their children at any rate, from sinking down to the condition of the labouring man? – a condition to which, in our day, the lower grades of the middle class have a decided tendency. In what way can the capital of such persons be employed without annually becoming "small by degrees and beautifully less?"

SMALL CAPITAL OF NO USE AT HOME.

Instead of becoming the foundation of wealth in a colony, small capital in this country is merely the protraction of poverty, and it requires both skill and prudence to put off the evil to a late day. To the possessor – if he see old age – poverty may come. To his children it is pretty certain to come. There are few whose experience of their neighbours' fortunes will not compel them to admit the truth of the observation. Why should the same causes produce different effects in their own case?

It has become a settled maxim, that in the employment of small capital in most of the pursuits common in this country, the probability is in favour of its loss. This is not so in colonies. Small capital is not there opposed to contending interests. With ordinary prudence and industry on the part of its possessor, its reward is as certain as is its accumulation. The virgin soil of the earth asks no expensive mode of cultivation, and places the unskilful cultivator on a par with the most skilful; though the latter is slow in believing this. There are no ruinous conventional elegancies of life which must be indulged in order to maintain a certain station amongst people who absurdly aim at concealing poverty by an expenditure beyond their means. Taxation, and its concomitant evils and annoyances have all been left behind. Pauperism, except to the utterly worthless, is altogether unknown; and men neither envy nor fear their neighbours. Let the small capitalist say for himself which state of society is the better; the one in which he can with ease realize this comfortable independence and relieve himself of all anxiety with regard to his family, or the one which involves the loss, or at best, the precarious possession of his slender means of subsistence.

It is to this class of small capitalists that the labouring man must look for his extrication from his pauperized condition. The colonist with capital necessarily wants labour, and in the amount of purchase which has been paid for his land, is included the sum which is to procure labour to place upon that land, without which labour it would be valueless. It is only in

RELUCTANCE TO EMIGRATE.

this way that the labourer can expatriate himself, and leave his degradation behind him. The eagerness of thousands of the labouring classes to do this, forms the best proof that they are alive to the disadvantages of their present position. The colonist also enriches himself at the same time that he confers a benefit upon his industrious fellow-countrymen. There is no prouder position, certainly none more useful, than that of a man who can place himself in a colony upon his own land, tilled by labourers emanating from his own district at home, and who, relying on his judgment, have followed him to the land of his adoption. How many are there, now leading useless lives in this country, who might readily place themselves in a position so desirable to their dependents, and so beneficial to themselves, but who, by frittering away their limited means in this country, are only gradually sinking to the condition of dependents themselves?

There is a singular reluctance amongst the middle classes of our countrymen to emigrate. One reason is, that they see around them a society living in luxury, of which they hope one day to become participators, forgetting that the gulf which separates them from their wealthy neighbours is becoming every day wider. Another reason is, their attachment to their native country; but this, powerful as it is, should hardly weigh with men to whom it can only bring misfortune. A still more solid reason is the utter want of education to any useful or productive purpose. This is so peculiar a failing amongst too many of our countrymen, that its effects are worthy of more than a passing notice. From the very same motive we have just mentioned, viz., that of enabling their children to rank with the wealthy and luxurious, we find sons of persons in the lower middle class educated in great numbers for the productionless professions: as lawyers, doctors, parsons, &c.; forgetting that the professions conduce nothing to the general stock, but that those exercising them must, of necessity, live upon those who do produce. Yet where are these expectations fulfilled in the mass? What is the result to a large

USES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.

majority of those so educated? – A beggarly dependence Upon others, and incapacity to embark in any productive employment.

How much better would it be to educate the majority of these as colonists; to impress upon them from childhood that there is no room for them in their own country,. unless they shall first acquire a competency abroad, which will enable them to return home in independence. We might learn a valuable lesson in this respect from our Scottish neighbours. The lesson to their children is, that Scotland is no place for them: they must go abroad, when or where depending upon circumstances. Their education is sound and practical; and the result is, that, throw a Scotchman into any locality whatever, and, under any circumstances, he is sure to "alight on his feet," as the proverb is. There is no other reason for this, but that, from the habitual discipline of early education to the purpose exactly adapted to his after life, he has acquired a clear perception of his objects, and is enabled to follow them out with a dogged perseverance, which, permitting itself to turn neither to the right hand nor the left, seldom fails in accomplishing its purpose. He is born an emigrant, and he fulfils his destiny.

How different is the education of the lower middle class in England – how purposeless and inefficient. The only idea inculcated is that of raising themselves above the station in which they were born. How? – is not pointed out, nor are the mysteries of the art of acquiring a fortune, with nothing to begin with, communicated to them. To recommend a really useful education for his son to an ambitious parent, would almost be regarded as an insult. Yet rarely is this ambition gratified. Wealth is a lottery, in which are a vast number of candidates for a very few prizes. The majority, who draw blanks, have infinitely more reason to be disappointed than had they remained in their original station, and received such an education therein, as would have enabled them legitimately to raise their fortunes.

USES OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.

Let parents choose whether of the two courses is the better. In sending out their sons to colonies – having first practically fitted them for this end – there is a possibility, nay, every probability, that their children may return to them, in competence, to cheer the evening of their days. No such general results can be hoped for from keeping them at home to swell the difficulties with which every man's hearth is beset.

These are they who should emigrate, lightening the burdens of their country, and receiving competence in return. Their humble neighbours, to whom the means of emigration are afforded from their enterprise, will not be slow to follow them, and to assist them in their career.

1 The recent large emigration from this country has slightly altered the state of matters since this work was first published in 1848. But the amelioration is only temporary; the causes of a necessity for emigration still remain, and will again produce their effect when the mania for the Australian gold fields has somewhat subsided.

CHAPTER II. THE ENDS TO BE OBTAINED BY EMIGRATION.

NO SUDDEN FORTUNES TO BE LOOKED FOR.

CHAPTER II.

THE ENDS TO BE OBTAINED BY EMIGRATION.

No sudden fortunes to be looked for by emigration to an industrial colony – A colonist's success rests with himself – Struggles at home for a living – Labour the most valuable commodity in a colony – Advantages of the Southern Colonies – The emigrant's mission.

No greater fallacy can occupy the mind of an emigrant, than that by becoming a colonist he is about to acquire a sudden fortune. It is a very common delusion, both with the ardent and the desperate, two classes of men who abound in colonies; but with such, the realization of the delusion, and not of the sudden fortune, is the more probable event. Nowhere is steadiness both of mind and of pursuit more requisite than in a colony, and nowhere does it meet with a more certain reward; but both must be exercised if that reward is to be obtained. Men of restless habits and unsteady dispositions who embark in colonization with visionary schemes and extravagant expectations of the speedy acquisition of wealth, rarely, if ever, do acquire it. It may, indeed, occasionally happen, that a man of cool judgment, superior sagacity, and endowed with the faculty of combining circumstances, does realize speedy wealth; but a very little reflection will make it apparent, that in a new colony in particular, this must have been done at the expense, present or future, of his neighbours; out of whose pockets his rapid accumulation

A COLONIST'S SUCCESS RESTS WITH HIMSELF.

of gain, must, in some shape or other, have come. Such men chiefly owe their success to their knowledge of the bias of men's minds towards speculation, and to their power of turning this knowledge to account. Speculation, in a new Colony, is only another term for gambling, and by the concoction of schemes for landjobbing, and other projects of a similar nature, persons so disposed find little difficulty in exciting the lurking passion, to which all men, notwithstanding their protestations to the contrary, are prone; the consequence, to all but the projectors of such schemes themselves, is, as great a certainty of being duped, as though the operation of fleecing had been performed in a gambling-house. The emigrant's first care, on landing in a new colony, is to be on his guard against speculators.

Let the intending emigrant always bear this in mind, that men who are incapable of succeeding at home, providing the opportunities of success offer themselves, will not succeed in a colony to the extent of their groundless and inconsiderate expectations. In one respect, they must, and will succeed – they will be much better off than they would have been at home, even, with the negative qualities of want of industry, perseverance, and energy. But the want of the opposite qualities will as surely operate comparatively in a colony, as they would have done at home. Without industry, perseverance, and energy, natural or acquired – and they may be acquired – success in any pursuit, at home or abroad, can, at best, but be doubtful, and must, in all cases, be in proportion to the exertions made use of, in search of it.

It is, therefore, of the greatest importance to the future success of the emigrant, that before starting on his contemplated expedition, he should have formed rational and well-founded views of what both his mind and his physical powers are capable of effecting. No good can result from self-deception in either case. If he be satisfied with the result of his. self-examination, then let him at once adopt the step contemplated, but let no mere impulse, nor the restless love

STRUGGLES AT HOME FOR A LIVING.

of change, inherent in some men, urge him to emigrate. Having made up his mind to the step, his first requisite is to gain an accurate idea of the country to which he is about to proceed. His second, to adapt all his proceedings to the knowledge thus acquired. With a systematic way of going about it, there is no difficulty in either, and neither time nor means spent in the acquisition of such knowledge, as the basis of future operations, will be afterwards regretted; though the neglect of opportunity in acquiring information, may, and will, be so regretted.

The previous life of a man about to emigrate to a colony, has usually been a struggle for existence, and in nine cases out of ten, a hard one. One of his motives in emigrating is to render this struggle less difficult, and its results more certain. The expectations founded upon this motive of emigration, are in no danger of not being realized, even at the commencement of his career as a colonist. Whether the labour of his hands form his only capital, or whether he combine with it a small monetary capital, he needs be in no fear of not being at once placed in a competence consistent with his station in life; such competence of course depending upon his own industry. This is of itself no inconsiderable advantage, and one which a thinking man will appreciate. There is no one, to use a common but expressive phrase, "to take the bread out of his mouth." His labour is wanted, and his capital, which in the mother-country would only be swallowed up by the leviathans around him, can at once be turned to good account. But the mere lessening the struggle for existence should be the lowest motive of an emigrant; it is a motive with which none but a "hewer of wood and drawer of water" would rest contented. Persons who emigrate to colonies are almost invariably found to possess a more enterprising spirit than those of the same class remaining at home, and that for a very sufficient reason; – it requires both enterprise and energy of purpose to forsake the associations of home, and to

LABOUR THE MOST VALUABLE COMMODITY.

face the annoyances of a long voyage, even lessened as these have been by modern improvements and increased skill in navigation. Hence it is that the generality of colonists, especially those who have emigrated from an appreciation of the industrial advantage of so doing, do not rest contented with a mere change of pasture, abundant though it be in comparison with the one in which they have previously been accustomed. The acquisition of minor wants give aspirations towards greater ones, and an energetic man is no longer content with merely being well fed. He must possess standing, consideration, comfort, and even, luxury; and in proportion as a man aspires after these things, so is, in general, his value, both to himself and the community. Even the labourer, bowed down as he has been at home, is generally the first to show symptoms of social improvement under improved circumstances; – his commodity, labour, is necessarily in the greatest demand in a colony, and he is among the first to reap the reward of his industry. The necessities of his animal nature, no longer in fear of wanting supplies, seem to give way to a higher tone of feeling, the existence of which he had, perhaps, scarcely before suspected. It had been kept down by the state of mental degradation in which society at home had placed him.

Yet this is not the lot of all, except as far as the certainty of being fed goes. The same opportunities present themselves to all, but by no means do all equally avail themselves of them. The fault, however, rests with themselves, and not with the colony to which they have emigrated. One fault, the commonest cause of failure in a colony, is of too great moment to be lightly passed over. The means of dissipation are unhappily too facile in all our colonies, and the indulgence in these is the bane of the emigrant, to whom no little strength of mind is requisite for the resistance of such indulgence. He must bear in mind that this indulgence, or its opposite, forms almost the only distinction between the prosperous and the unprosperous. To resist the first impulse

ADVANTAGES OF THE SOUTHERN COLONIES.

is the chief point requisite. If he do this he will be safe, but if he yield to the temptation, his hopes of prosperity are futile. It is a maxim, in the experience of most colonists, that if a man do not ascend in the social scale, he retrogrades. There is no remaining on the same step of the ladder.

Instances of this nature are, however, happily the exception, and not the rule. They are, notwithstanding, too numerous not to deserve a passing notice; and if such notice shall have prevented a single individual from falling into habits so destructive to his future prospects, the purpose of the writer will have been answered. A man given to intemperance at home has an excellent opportunity of breaking himself off the habit during the voyage; let him not, as he values his future welfare, resume it in the colony. He will find few other drawbacks to his success.

A profitable caution to the emigrant on his first landing in the colony will be, not to be too hasty in deciding on his future course of proceeding, whether he have nothing hut his labour to offer, or whether he have a small capital to invest. In the first instance, his steps are easily retraced if he go wrong; but in the latter case, money hastily and therefore injudiciously invested will, often be lost altogether, or, at the least, from want of experience on the part of its owner, be in no small danger of becoming so. The emigrant to New Zealand, of all colonists, has the least occasion to be in a hurry on his arrival, possessing, as he does, an advantage unknown to the occupant of other emigration fields, viz, the advantage of being placed at once on the site of his future operations. He can, therefore, afford to spend a few days or weeks in looking about him, before he finally decides on his future course. This advantage should not be underrated; nor will it be so, if compared with the disadvantages of emigrating to some other of our colonies; from which comparison it will appear, that New Zealand, though the most distant in space of all our colonial possessions, is among the nearest in the time requisite for the location of the emigrant. Take Canada, for example, the nearest of all our colonies. In

COMPARISON WITH CANADA.

case of emigration thither, the emigrant, after a voyage of two or even three months, in ships for the most part badly found and wretchedly provisioned, finds himself under the necessity of travelling many hundred miles in a region in which frost and snow prevail for two-thirds of the year. Hence, the expenditure of time, notwithstanding the vicinity of the colony, makes the New Zealand voyage of four months short in comparison with the time requisite for getting located in British North America; whilst the expenditure of money without return, which, in the case of emigration to Canada, is unavoidable, amounts to a sum which, in New Zealand, would have put him in possession of an excellent cottage and garden, almost as soon as he had landed from the ship. Even after the toilsome journey through the back-settlements of Canada has been performed, the emigrant has still to look for his location; and if he arrive at any other period than the commencement of the short summer of the Canadian climate, he must wait for many months, living all the time upon his capital, till the advent of the following spring melts the snows which lie many feet deep upon the ground, before he can plant a single vegetable for the use of his table. In New Zealand, on the contrary, he can sow or plant during any month of the year, and such is the rapidity of vegetable growth, and the fertility of the soil, that a comparatively short time will suffice for a plentiful supply of vegetables at any season. A comparison in this and other respects, has been made with Canada, simply, because it is the most familiar instance with emigrants; but the same remarks, with regard to difficulty of location, will apply to the interior of New South Wales and other colonies, even though they present no drawbacks in point of climate.

It would be easy to multiply hints of this nature ad infinitum, but it is unnecessary. There are few subjects of importance to the settler which do not arise out of what has been already stated, and these will naturally suggest themselves to an intelligent mind. The life of a settler in New Zealand is an easy one compared with a life in Canada or in some other

THE EMIGRANT'S MISSION.

colonies. He must labour, but not with excessive toil or under privations of any serious kind. Even those possessed of capital should labour with their own hands, if but for example's sake. None have hitherto set a better example in this respect, than those members of aristocratic families who have already emigrated. To a well-conducted colonist, there is no absence of those refinements of society to which he has been accustomed in his own station at home. If he do not enjoy this society, it will be his own fault. He may do this, and, at the same time, with ordinary prudence, lay the foundation for certain success, and for the future independence and comfort of his family.

One more remark will not be out of place. The emigrant, on getting located at his adopted home, will do well to form a correct estimate of his change of position. Nothing will operate as a greater spur to exertion than this. If he have been, as the phrase goes, one of the lower classes, he is no longer the "cumberer of the ground" which the artificial state of society at home compelled him to be, and that against his inclination. If he belong to what is termed the middle class of society, he is in no danger of sinking down to the condition of the labourer – an almost inevitable result of his remaining at home. If his colonial career be pursued with ordinary industry and steadiness of purpose, from a burden upon his country he will have been converted into its benefactor. Thus, in addition to the benefit derived by being removed from a condition in which the great difficulty was to live, to one in which the difficulty is unknown, the colonist will have acquired, not only a position in the social scale, but also an independence of character which it should be his aim to foster and encourage.

Nor should higher considerations be wanting. The mission of the emigrant, insignificant though it may at first sight appear, is, in reality, a high and glorious mission. To him, together with others, has been committed the task of peopling and cultivating the earth. To him, more especially than to other men, is the divine command, "increase and multiply," addressed; for it would he but a narrow interpretation of the command to restrict it only

INCENTIVES TO THE EMIGRANT.

to the reproduction of our species. Mankind is to multiply as well as to increase. The increase of mankind may be in a limited spot, as is the case in our own country, and is eventually productive of over-population, with its natural concomitants of degradation and misery to the masses. The multiplication of mankind has no limit but the world itself, and is productive of prosperity and additional happiness to all. The emigrant, then, is the agent of Providence in carrying out its greatest work. Colonies are infant states, – empires in embryo, – of which he is one of the founders. It is not merely probable, but almost matter of certainty, that, however humble may be his present position, – his descendants will rank among the rulers of that infant state, as it approaches to national manhood. Let him, then, by his example, contribute his quota towards giving to this state a moral healthiness, as well as an industrial impulse; – assuring himself that this is the only method of rendering it vigorous for the future, and worthy of his prosperity.

CHAPTER III. THE CLIMATE OF NEW ZEALAND, AND THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE GENERALLY.

THE CLIMATE OF NEW ZEALAND.

CHAPTER III.

THE CLIMATE OF NEW ZEALAND, AND THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE GENERALLY.

Mean temperature – Mildness of southern climates – Continental climates – Diseases – Seasons – Fruits, vegetables, &c. – Winds – Meteorology.

THE first consideration of an intending emigrant, is, or should be, to ascertain the character of the climate of the country to which he contemplates emigrating. If he be a single man, such an inquiry on his part is matter of policy; if he be married, and have a family, it becomes an imperative duty, for he has no right to expose his dependents to excesses of climate unsuited to their constitutions; which violent contrasts may entail on them, and himself too, miseries far worse than those from which he is endeavouring to escape. Health is the basis of independence, which, in a colony, cannot possibly be realized without it: this, then, should form the first question: the second is, in any particular climate, how many days in the year can man labour remuneratively? The climate which, with the greatest certainty of health, offers the highest chances for remuneration, should, as a matter of course, be chosen.

There are two great emigration fields open for his choice; British North America and the colonies of the Pacific; – a passing notice of the comparative climates of all which colonies will not be without its uses.

It is generally asserted, and as generally believed, even by

MEAN TEMPERATURE.

seafaring men, that the countries of the southern hemisphere are considerably colder than those of corresponding latitudes in the northern hemisphere. But this opinion is greatly modified by well-ascertained facts, though we have not as yet sufficient data whereby to arrive at the exact truth. One point has, however, been clearly established by the data which we do possess, viz., that there is no discrepancy of climate in the equinoctial districts north and south of the equator; and there are abundant data for concluding, that as far as from 40 to 45 degrees of south latitude, the warmth of the southern hemisphere is equal to that of the northern; whilst it is in many cases much higher, instead of lower, than the temperature in corresponding northern Transatlantic latitudes.

Beyond these limits, it is also believed to be a fact that the southern hemisphere has a lower temperature than the northern European, but not than the northern Transatlantic. Hence large masses of ice descend towards the equator from the southern pole to a much greater distance than is the case in the northern seas; icebergs of considerable magnitude being occasionally fallen in with as far as the latitude of the Cape of Good Hope; and this fact will go far to account for the seamen's belief in the greater cold of the southern latitudes.

To test these statements. The latitude of Wellington, in New Zealand, corresponds nearly with that of Rome. The mean temperature of the coldest month at Rome is 42 degrees of Fahrenheit; the mean temperature of the hottest month at Rome is 77 degrees, giving a difference of 35 degrees between summer and winter.

The mean temperature of the coldest month at Wellington is 44 degrees; the mean temperature of the hottest month 64 degrees, giving a difference between summer and winter of 20 degrees only; a range of temperature perhaps less in variation than that of any other country on the globe. There is, however, a reason for this, independently of the mere consideration of latitude. The islands of New Zealand are narrow

TRANSATLANTIC CLIMATES.

in comparison with their length, and the vast magnitude of the ocean by which they are surrounded – the sea radiating less absolute heat than dry land – contributes to diminish the summer temperature by the cool currents of air which it supplies. The same cause, as sea preserves a much more uniform temperature than land, supplies warm currents to modify the winter's cold. Perhaps no country better elucidates the well-known fact, that islands have universally milder climates than inland regions under the same parallel of latitude. The mild winters and cool summers of Ireland form an exemplification of the same kind nearer home.

Let us now contrast the temperature of New Zealand, with a few instances of Transatlantic temperature.

The latitude of Otago, in New Zealand, nearly corresponds with that of Quebec in the northern hemisphere. We do not as yet know the means of temperature at Otago, but this we do know, that at Otago snow is unfrequent, and rarely continues beyond the day on which it falls; whilst the winters of Quebec last seven months of the year, the snow lying during the whole of this long period many feet deep, to the complete stoppage of all agricultural operations. At Quebec, moreover, the freezing of mercury, which takes place at 39 or 40 degrees below zero, is no unusual occurrence. The mean temperature of the coldest, month at Quebec is 14 degrees, that of the hottest, 73 degrees; giving a range of no less than fifty-nine degrees.

Again. Let us take the instance of New York, nearly corresponding in latitude to Nelson, in New Zealand. The mean temperature of the coldest month in New York is 25 degrees, that of the hottest month, 80 degrees; giving an extreme range. of 55 degrees. At Nelson the temperature is little beyond that of Wellington, as previously given, whilst the extreme range is perhaps even less.

Cincinnati, again, nearly corresponds in latitude to New Plymouth. The mean temperature of the coldest mouth at Cincinnati is 29 degrees, that of the hottest, 74 degrees,

CONTRAST OF NORTH AND SOUTH HEMISPHERES.

the extreme range being 43 degrees. The winters of Cincinnati are very severe; whilst at New Plymouth snow is unknown, except as seen crowning the summit of Mount Egmont.

But these mean temperatures in the Transatlantic states give but a very faint idea of the extremes of temperature to which they are subject. At Quebec, the heat, during the very short summer of Canada, is sometimes as high as 100 degrees; this, contrasted with the extreme cold of 40 below zero, is quite sufficient to make the emigrant pause before submitting himself and his family to contrasts of climate so trying to the constitution of an Englishman, unused to such extremes of temperature. He has only to apply to his medical man, to learn how the excessive heat of summer, after the vigour of a seven months winter, increases the irritability of the nervous system. His children will become acclimatized; but it is ten to one that he himself will, for the rest of his life, feel the effects of the process of acclimation.

To show further, how fallacious are the vague assertions of the greater degree of cold in the southern hemisphere, let us contrast the climate of Pekin in the northern hemisphere with that of Wellington, as previously given, Pekin being a degree lower in latitude. The mean temperature of the coldest month at Pekin is 24 degrees, that of the hottest 84 degrees; giving a range of sixty degrees, the most extreme range known, whilst in point of extremes of temperature, Pekin, which has a mean annual temperature equal to that of the coast of Brittany, has the heats of summer equal to those of Egypt, with winters as rigorous as those of Sweden. In other words, the mean temperature of the coldest month at Pekin is 20 degrees colder than that of Wellington; the mean temperature of the hottest month at Pekin is 20 degrees hotter than at Wellington, and the extreme range of temperature is 60 degrees beyond that of Wellington. So much for the absurdity of the assertions as to the greater cold of the southern hemisphere.

It would be easy to continue this most interesting discussion

MILDNESS OF SOUTHERN CLIMATES.

to great length, by instituting comparisons between the climate of New Zealand and other places lying in a corresponding northern latitude, but, as my object is merely to point out to the intending emigrant the peculiar favourableness of the New Zealand climate, both for agricultural operations and health, it is unnecessary to say more than has already been stated. One instance more, showing the fallacy of the conclusion to which I have before alluded, viz., that "beyond 45 degrees the southern hemisphere is colder than the northern," will, perhaps, be desirable.

The Falkland Islands lie under the parallel of 60 degrees south, and the mean annual temperature is 47 degrees. At the same European latitude the mean annual temperature is 50, or three degrees greater than that of the Falkland. Islands. In the corresponding American latitude the mean annual temperature is from 35 to 37, being from 10 to 12 degrees less than that of the Falkland Islands, and from 14 to 16 less than the corresponding latitudes of Europe. So that, in the southern hemisphere, even beyond 45 degrees, here is an instance of a higher temperature than in a corresponding north latitude.

The great object of the emigrant should be to select those countries most favourable to health, and what, for want of a better phrase, may be termed atmospheric enjoyment. These desiderata he will not find combined in any of the emigration fields of the northern hemisphere. It is in the south alone that he can escape those violent seasonable contrasts of temperature which form the distinguishing characteristics of the Transatlantic states. Mild winters, alternating with cool summers, are the invariable results in our southern colonies. Even at Sydney, corresponding in latitude to Cairo, the winter is that of Egypt, and the summer that of Marseilles, with the exception of those fearful droughts, which, in New South Wales, occasionally destroy both vegetation and cattle. In Van Diemen's Land, corresponding in latitude to Rome, there is the summer of Paris and the winter of Naples.

BISHOP OF NEW ZEALAND.

Perhaps the delightful climate of New Zealand has never been better portrayed than in the following graphic description by the Bishop of New Zealand: –

"You would not wonder that I love New Zealand, if you knew as much of it as I do. It is amusing to hear the new comers, sitting in their flimsy houses at Auckland, and looking out upon the slimy paths which straggle like the tracks of snails about the hills of stunted fern, complain that they are disappointed in the climate and scenery of New Zealand. No one knows what the climate is till he has basked in the almost perpetual sunshine of Tasman's Gulf, with a frame braced and invigorated to the full enjoyment of heat by the wholesome frost or cool snowy breeze of the night before. And no one can speak of the soil or scenery of New Zealand till he has seen both the natural beauties and the ripening harvests of Taranaki. When he has sat upon the deck of a vessel sailing to Taranaki, and watched the play of light and shade upon the noble mountain and the woods at its base, and far behind, in the centre of the islands, the thin white wreath of streamy smoke which marks the volcano of Tongariro, and to the south the sister mountain of Ruapaho covered with perpetual snow, – then he may be qualified to speak of the scenery of this country, especially if he has added to his sketch-book the great chain of the southern Alps, which I have lately seen in all their wintry-grandeur, stretching in almost unbroken line from north to south for more than three hundred miles. And no one can speak of the healthfulness of New Zealand till he has been ventilated by the restless breezes of Port Nicholson, where malaria is no more to be feared than on the top of Chimborazo, and where active habits of industry and enterprise are evidently-favoured by the elastic tone and perpetual motion of the atmosphere. If I am not mistaken, no fog can ever linger long over Wellington to deaden the intellectual faculties of its inhabitants."

The following meteorological table will render our view of the climate sufficiently complete: –

CLIMATE OF NORTH PROVINCE.

TABLE OF THE CLIMATE OF LONDON COMPARED TO THAT OF WELLINGTON.

TABLE OF THE CLIMATE OF LONDON COMPARED TO THAT OF WELLINGTON.

The foregoing remarks on the climate of New Zealand apply chiefly to the southern provinces. The clever editor of the New Zealander has supplied an admirable synopsis of the condition of the climate of the northern provinces, some extracts from which will render this part of our subject complete: –

The climate of New Zealand, though undoubtedly good, has been described injudiciously, and without discrimination. Beautiful, delightful, and splendid, are the epithets which have commonly been applied to it. These terms naturally convey the impression of an atmosphere rarely disturbed by wind or rain. Until its true value comes to be appreciated by them, strangers are at first somewhat rudely disenchanted by finding that their imaginary Paradise can be visited, and that, too, rather roughly, by the winds and rains of Heaven. This disenchantment frequently takes place at an early period; for it not uncommonly happens that vessels enter the harbour in a gale of wind. Impatient to view the promised land, the new-comer, in spite of the weather, lands without delay. Wading along a sloppy clay road, in a boisterous gale of wind and rain, with, perhaps, an umbrella turned inside out in one hand, and his hat jammed tightly over his head with the other, he can scarcely divest himself of the idea that the ship must have lost her reckoning, and mistaken her port. Pride, however, prevents him asking questions, and politeness forbids disparaging remarks. But in New Zealand, as elsewhere, a storm is followed by a calm;

CONTINENTAL CLIMATES.

and if disenchanted to-day, the new arrival will probably be charmed to-morrow by one of those calm, bright, and lovely mornings, whose beauty no language can fittingly describe. The fact is that the climate of a country may be fertile and salubrious – and such is the climate of New Zealand – without being either splendid or delightful.

The general salubrity of the climate, of New Zealand has now been established by the experience of years. For persons of delicate constitution, predisposed to disease of the lungs, it is unequalled, save by Madeira. Compared with that of Nice, one of the most celebrated continental climates, the climate of Auckland is more temperate in summer – milder in the winter – equally mild in the spring – but a little colder in the autumn: – with this advantage, too, over all the boasted continental climates, that it is not so liable to the very great variations of temperature common to them all from sudden shifts of wind. The climate of New Zealand is doubtless less charming and delightful than that of Italy and the South of Trance, but it is certainly more salubrious, and probably better suited to the English constitution. For although it has its share of wind, rain, and broken weather, it has the advantage over Italy and France, in being more limited in range of temperature – embracing a less oppressive summer heat, less sudden changes of temperature during the twenty-four hours, and a more gradual change of temperature from month to month.

Many of the Continental and Mediterranean climates are, during certain seasons of the year, finer, steadier, more agreeable than, and equally salubrious as, that of New Zealand, but their summer heat is in some cases too great; their autumn weather frequently unhealthy – winter, too cold – and spring objectionable from being liable to gusts of cold and chilling winds. By moving constantly about throughout the year – traversing continents and seas, it would no doubt be possible to be always in a fine and salubrious climate. But, as a fixed and permanent residence, there are probably few places to be found, in all respects, more suitable to the English constitution than

NEW ZEALAND DISEASES.

New Zealand; and if that be so, then, few more suitable for persons of delicate chest or lungs; the true theory being, that for preventing the development of diseases of the chest, that is the best climate which will admit of the greatest and most constant exposure to the open air, and which is at the same time best calculated to promote the general health; a tendency to disease of any kind being best warded off by keeping the bodily system in a vigorous tone of health.

Compared with Great Britain, New Zealand, so far as its general salubrity can be ascertained, possesses a marked superiority. From the results of observations made by Dr. Thomson, of the 58th Regiment, for a period of two years, from April 1848, to April 1850, when the strength of the troops stationed in the colony amounted to nearly two thousand men, it appears from valuable tables compiled by him, that, taking diseases generally, out of every thousand men, twice as many were admitted into hospital in England as were admitted into hospital in New Zealand. And the mortality amongst equal numbers treated was about 8 1/2 in New Zealand to 14 in England.

Cases of fever in New Zealand are rare. Prom the same Returns, it appears there are six cases of fever in Great Britain for one in New Zealand; and out of forty-seven cases in New Zealand there was but one death. Of diseases of the lungs, three cases were admitted into hospital in Great Britain to one in New Zealand; and out of an equal number treated, seven terminated fatally in Great Britain, and but four in New Zealand. Diseases of the stomach and bowels are more prevalent by half in Great Britain than in New Zealand. Diseases of the liver and brain are nearly the same in the two countries. The only class of cases in which the comparison is unfavourable to New Zealand are complaints of the eye, which are more than twice as numerous here as they are in Great Britain. Small-pox and measles are as yet unknown in New Zealand.

Comparing New Zealand with the healthiest foreign stations

NEW ZEALAND DISEASES.

of the British army, it will appear from the following table, compiled by the same authority, taking into account all classes of disease receiving hospital treatment, that the comparison is greatly in favour of this country. And with reference to pulmonary disease, there are in Malta two cases for one in New Zealand. In the Ionian Islands there are three cases to two in this country. At the Cape of Good Hope there are ten cases for six in New Zealand. In the Mauritius there are the fewest number of cases treated after New Zealand – the proportion being about eight in the Mauritius to six in New Zealand; but the mortality from pulmonary disease is twice as great in the Mauritius as it is in New Zealand. While in Australia there are twice as many cases of pectoral disease as in New Zealand, and the disease being, at the same time, twice as fatal: –

[Mortality and disease in New Zealand]

In cases of fever, there are at least five in Malta, the Cape, and in Australia, to one in New Zealand.

Of complaints of the liver, there are two cases in the above-mentioned places to one in New Zealand.

NEW ZEALAND DISEASES.

And of diseases of the stomach and bowels, there are more than two cases at each of the above-mentioned places for one in this country.

TABLE showing the Annual Ratio of Admissions and Deaths among 1,000 Troops at the following Stations from the undermentioned Classes of Diseases: –

TABLE showing the Annual Ratio of Admissions and Deaths among 1,000 Troops at the following Stations from the undermentioned Classes of Diseases

* From seven years' observation, ending March 1850, kindly furnished by Staff-Surgeon Shanks, Principal Medical Officer, New South Wales.

But assuming the above Returns to show correctly the comparative healthiness of our troops in Great Britain, and at the various foreign stations, it does not necessarily follow that they correctly exhibit the comparative salubrity of the climates of the countries to which they relate, so far at least as regards the community at large – and for this reason, that our troops are for the most part lodged in barracks; and that the health of the men is influenced by the manner in which they are lodged, as well as by the climate of the country in which they may be stationed; and that barracks vary considerably in the the several important particulars of size, ventilation, construction, and position. This result, therefore, might easily follow

SEASONS.

– that men stationed in a bad climate but lodged in barracks erected on a well chosen site, spacious, dry, well ventilated, well drained, and supplied with good water, may have fewer hospital cases and less mortality, than men stationed in a good climate, but lodged in barracks in a bad situation, close confined, ill drained, and badly constructed. But, making allowance for all such disturbing causes, there can be no doubt that the foregoing Tables afford satisfactory proof of the general salubrity of the country.

Compared with an English summer, that of Auckland is but little warmer, though much longer. But the nights in New Zealand are always cool and refreshing, and rest is never lost from the warmth and closeness of the night. It is also much warmer here both in the spring and autumn; and the winter weather of England, from the middle of November to the middle of March, with its parching easterly winds, cold, fog, and snow, altogether unknown. Snow, indeed, is never seen here; ice, very thin and very rarely; and hail is neither common nor destructive. The winter, however, is very wet, but not colder than an English April or October. There is a greater prevalence of high winds, too, than is personally agreeable: but with less wind the climate would not be more healthy. There is most wind in the spring and autumn; rather less in the summer; and least of all in winter.

Compared with the climate of Wellington, that of Auckland is a few degrees warmer both in summer and winter: the air here, too, being somewhat more soft and genial. Auckland has less wind than Wellington – but more rain. A better climate than that of either Auckland or Wellington is to be found in the Bay of Plenty, and along the east coast of the broadest part of the Northern Island where the weather is steadier and more settled, with much less wind and rain.

The seasons are the reverse of those in England. Spring commences in September; Summer in December; Autumn in April; and Winter in the middle of June.

In the summer, during settled weather, a calm commonly

FRUITS, VEGETABLES, ETC.

prevails until about ten or eleven o'clock in the morning: the heat is then moderated by a brisk sea breeze from the north, which dies away at sunset.

Fruits, flowers, and vegetables, all thrive well; but owing perhaps to their more rapid growth, or, it may be that the same amount of care and attention has not yet been paid to the choice of stocks, and to their cultivation and management as in England, the flowers are rather less highly scented, and the fruits and vegetables less highly flavoured than at home. Cultivated flowers blow quickly; their colour is fine, and no word but profusion can describe their quantity. Figs, peaches, grapes, and melons, ripen in the open air. Gooseberries and currants succeed better in the south, the climate being colder. Strawberries are in season in November, December, and January; cherries and gooseberries in January; apples, pears, plums, peaches, and nectarines in February; and melons, figs and grapes, in March and April. The geranium, arum, fuchsia, balsam, myrtle, coronella, hydrangia, heliotrope, gladiola, and Cape bulbs of every kind, enjoy a vigorous existence in the open air, and roses blow without ceasing.

In the winter, long continued heavy rain is frequent, and the wet appears even more excessive than it is, because the paths and bye-roads as yet continue in their natural state, having their clayey surface unformed, unpaved, and undrained. In the intervals between the heavy winter rains, the weather is bright, clear, and bracing – the growth of grass is scarcely ever checked by the winter cold – the geranium, stock and wall flower, scarlet verbena and daisy, Indian May, and other flowers, may be seen to blow throughout the coldest season; and the face of the cultivated country, with its ever springing pastures, and ever-green trees, looks as bright and cheerful between the rains – on a sunny winter's day – as on an English summer landscape. More rain falls in Auckland than in England, taking an average of the whole country. But there are more fine dry days in Auckland than in the northern and western districts of England. Fogs are rarely seen here;

WINDS.

thunder storms are less common and less violent than in England, and lightning, though common, is generally harmless.

The days are an hour shorter in the summer and an hour longer in the winter than in England. Of twilight there is little or none.

The prevailing winds are the S. W. and the N. E., the latter being always the warmer of the two, but it commonly freshens into a gale. By observers of the weather, it is thought that the N. E. gales occur more frequently within a day or two after the full and change of the moon than at any other time. These gales, after blowing for about forty-eight hours, cease suddenly when the wind chops round to the S. W., and the weather becomes clear and bright. With the wind at S. W. or S., the weather is commonly steady – settled fine, or settled wet. With the wind at W. or N. W., it is almost always showery, squally, and unsettled. Westerly winds fall in the evening. Occasionally the wind blows from the S. S. E. With the wind in that quarter, the weather is commonly cold, chilly, and wet. A shift of wind usually follows the course of the sun; when the wind shifts in an opposite direction settled weather is not expected.

In all seasons, the beauty of the day is in the early morning. At that time, generally, a solemn stillness holds, and a perfect calm prevails: not a sound is heard – not a breath is stirring, as the rays of the rising sun are gently stealing over the world at rest. Every object breathes repose; and the peaceful landscape, softly sleeping, suffused with golden light, suggests an image of the world before the fail of our first parents.

The change in the weather from month to month is very gradual.

January is one of the finest months in the year, and very favourable for the grain harvest. The temperature indicated by the thermometer out of doors – in the shade – taking an average of several years, is, at eight o'clock in the morning, 66 deg.; at two o'clock in the afternoon, 74 deg.; and at eight o'clock in the evening, 62 deg. Taking an average of the same years and

METEOROLOGY.

during the twenty-four hours, there are in this month, five showery days, two wet days (or days in which there is rain of three hours' continuance), and twenty-four dry days. But, in New Zealand as in England, there is now and then an exceptional season. For instance, in January 1852 the weather was wet and unsettled, altogether unlike that which commonly prevails. In 1846 the weather in January was equally exceptional.

The temperature of the month of February nearly resembles that of January, being 67 deg. at 8 A.M.; 73 deg. at 2 P.M.; and 62 deg. at 8 P.M.; being also usually equally dry. Showery days 5 1/2; wet days 2 1/2; dry days 20 1/2.

In March the temperature falls a little: 8 A.M. 63 deg.; at 2 P.M. 70 deg.; and at 8 P.M. 60 deg.; hut the weather is equally dry as in the two previous months. Showery days 61/2; wetdays2 1/2; and dry days 22.

In April mosquitoes disappear, and the weather becomes sensibly cooler – more unsettled and showery. At 8 A.M. 58 deg.; at 2 P.M. 66 deg.; and at 8 P.M. 57 deg.. Showery days 12; wet days 3 1/2; and dry days 15 1/2. In the year 1852 the very wet January was followed by unusually dry weather. Between the 23rd January and the middle of May there was not one wet day, and the showers were unusually slight.

In the month of May the air begins to have an autumnal feel – but the weather is wet – mush more wet than in the preceding month. Towards the end of the month there are generally some of the finest days in the year – calm, temperate, and bright. Temperature at 8 A.M. 52 deg.; at 2 P.M. 60 deg.; and at 8 P.M. 52 deg.. Showery days 11; wet days 4; and dry days 16.

In the month of June the weather is cold and chilly – but it is very little more unsettled than the two preceding months. In this month also the days are very fine. Temperature at 8 A.M. 49 deg.; at 2 P.M. 46 deg.; and at 8 P.M. 49 deg.. Showery days 11; wet days 4; and dry days 15.

July is generally the worst month in the year – the very

METEOROLOGY.

depth of winter – cold and wet. The ground being now saturated with moisture the water does not readily drain away or evaporate. The dry days are commonly bright and clear; but here is little frost and no snow: the temperature being about 10 deg. warmer here than in an English winter. At 8 A.M. 47 deg.; at 2 P.M. 53 deg.; and at 8 P.M. 47 deg.. The number of showery days being 13; wet days 6; and dry days 12.

In August a slight improvement commonly takes place. There is rather less rain than an July, and towards the end of the month the air becomes perceptibly warmer. But if the preceding months have been unusually fine, August is then the worse of the two. Temperature at 8 A.M. 50 deg.; at 2 P.M. 56 deg.; and at 8 P.M. 49 deg.. Showery days 10; wet days 5 1/2; dry days 15 1/2.

In September, Spring commences. The number of days on which rain falls may not be much less than in the preceding month, but the quantity is smaller, and, owing to an increase in the temperature, the roads are now observed to dry up after a shower, and a decided improvement is perceptible. Temperature at 8 A.M. 53 deg.; at 2 P.M. 58 deg.; and at 8 P.M. 51 deg.. Number of showery days 8 1/2; wet days 5; and dry days 16 1/2.

The weather in October is rarely the same two successive years, being sometimes fine and dry, but more commonly coarse, cold, and boisterous. The temperature is higher than in September, but the number of days on which rain falls, as well as the quantity, is usually the same. High winds and heavy squalls from the westward, with showers, commonly prevail at this season, and it sometimes happens that owing to the force of the wind the cold is as much felt as during the winter when calms prevail. The peach blossoms frequently surfer severely during this boisterous weather. Temperature at 8 A.M. 54 deg.; at 2 P.M. 62 deg.; and at 8 P.M. 53 deg.. Showery days 11; wet days 4 1/2; and dry days 15 1/2.

In November the temperature increases rapidly, but the weather continues unsettled, rain being almost as frequent as during the two preceding months. By shutting up the meadows

METEOROLOGY.

early, grass would now be ready to cut; but owing to the unsettled state of the weather in this month a sufficient interval of fine dry weather for hay-making cannot be counted upon. The practice is beginning to prevail of shutting up the grass later than was formerly the custom, so as to postpone the season of hay harvest until December. Temperature at 8 A.M. 59 deg.; at 2 P.M. 66 deg.; and at 8 P.M. 55 deg.. Showery days 11; wet days 4; and dry days 15.

In December the weather is still warmer and more settled than in November; not so warm as January, but having commonly an equal number of dry days. Temperature at 8 A.M. 58 deg. Number of showery days 6 1/2; wet days 2 1/2; and dry days 22. For travelling in the bush this is one of the finest months.

CHAPTER IV. OUTLINE SKETCH OF NEW ZEALAND.

OUTLINE SKETCH OF NEW ZEALAND.

CHAPTER IV.

OUTLINE SKETCH OF NEW ZEALAND.

Geographical features – Middle Island – North Island – Character of soil – Mountains – General aspect.

IT is unnecessary to enter into a minute description of the islands collectively called New Zealand. They are three in number, distinguished as the North Island, the Middle Island, and Stewart's Island. These are included between the parallels of 34 and 48 degrees south latitude, thus embracing a range of about 14 degrees, or 840 geographical miles in length, by an average breadth of about 100 miles – the breadth varying from 200 miles to 40, and in some places even to less. Between the bay of the Manakau and the Tamaki, in the north island, the breadth is only three miles, thus nearly dividing the north island into two parts. The parallels of latitude just given correspond with the latitudes of Madeira and the south of France in the northern hemisphere. The Middle Island is separated from the Northern Island by Cook's Strait, and from Stewart's Island by Foveaux's Strait. New Zealand is, in round numbers, about 13,000 miles from Great Britain, 1,200 from New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, and 5,000 from Peru and Chili, on the west coast of South America. The area of the Northern Island has been computed to contain 40,000 English square miles; and the Middle Island, to which Stewart's Island may be considered an appendage, 55,000 square

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES.

miles; making an aggregate of 95,000, or about 62,000,000 square acres – a surface somewhat larger than Great Britain. The Northern Island is divided into three provinces, named New Leinster, New Munster, and New Ulster.

The Northern Island contains the settlements of Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth, Auckland, and the Bay of Islands; the timber settlements of Hokianga, Kaipari, and Mercury Bay; besides a few whaling stations on the east coast.

The Middle Island contains the settlements of Nelson, Cloudy Bay, Canterbury, Akaroa, originally formed by a French emigration company shortly subsequent to the occupation of New Zealand by the British Government; Otago, and a great number of whaling stations, chiefly on the east coast and in Cook's Strait. Akaroa has been purchased by the New Zealand Company from the French company, who first colonized it, and to whom a considerable quantity of land had been there awarded in consideration of their former purchase.

Stewart's Island is uninhabited, except by a few sealers and squatters, the latter of whom have located themselves with sheep and cattle.

The principal harbours on the North Island are Wangaroa, the Bay of Islands, Wangari, Auckland, the Thames, Mercury Bay, Tauranga, Poverty Bay, Hawke's Bay, Port Nicholson, Porirua, Kapiti, Wanganui, New Plymouth, Mokau, Kawia, Waikato, Manakau, Kaipara, and Hokianga.

Those of the Middle Island are Nelson, Croixelle's Harbour, and others in Tasman's Gulf, Port Hardy, and a numerous succession of harbours extending along the southern shores of Cook's Strait, amongst which is the great mass of harbours collectively termed Queen Charlotte's Sound, the favourite wintering place of Captain Cook – probably the finest harbour in the world, whether for shelter, room, or the excellence of its anchorage; Cloudy Bay, Kaikora, Port Cooper, Port Levi, Ikolaki, Peraki, Otago, Molyneux Harbour, the large collection of harbours called Dusky Bay, and many others on the west coast, of which little is as yet known.

MIDDLE ISLAND.

The harbours of Stewart's Island are Port William, Port Adventure, Southern Port, and some others of less moment.

The principal rivers are the Wai Wangari, the Thames, the Wairoa (Hawke's Bay), the Hutt, the Manawatu, the Rangitiki, the Wanganui, the Waipa, the Waikato, the Wairoa (Kaipara), and the Hokianga. On the Middle Island are the Wairoa, the Matou, the Buller, the Molyneux, and some others on the west coast, which have not as yet been explored.

The principal mountains are Mount Egmont, an extinct volcano near New Plymouth; Tongariro, a volcano in action in the Taupo country; Mount Edgecombe, a volcano in action near the Bay of Plenty; and a magnificent chain skirting the west coast of the Middle Island, surpassing in grandeur and extent any of the mountain chains of Europe, those of Switzerland not excepted; besides these, there are many others of less note.

The Northern Island was the first discovered, and the first settled by Europeans; – the missionaries of the Church Missionary Society having led the way by forming their establishment in the Bay of Islands in 1814, under the superintendence of the Rev. Samuel Marsden. This establishment was followed by that of the Wesleyan Missionary Society at Hokianga.

Of the Middle Island little was known prior to the colonization of the New Zealand Company's settlements in 1839. The report of Major Bunbury, who was deputed by the local government to the natives of the island in 1840, gave us the first definite ideas of it; and these found a valuable addition in the report of Captain Smith, the surveyor of the New Zealand Company, who, in 1842, was deputed by Colonel Wakefield, the agent of the company, to explore the eastern coast of the island. He has since been followed by other surveyors of the company, and this coast is now pretty well known. The western coast is, however, as yet comparatively unknown, except from the crude reports of whalers and sealers, upon whose testimony little reliance can be placed. The Middle Island was formerly thickly populated with natives; these have, with the

NORTH ISLAND.

exception of a few at Otago, Banks' Peninsula, and Cloudy Bay been utterly exterminated by Te Pahi and his successor, the notorious cannibal Rauperaha, as the consequence of the firearms and other implements of war obtained by the former when in England, and on his subsequent voyage to Sydney. Te Pahi was killed in one of his murderous expeditions; and Rauperaha has since carried out to the utmost the war of extermination which his predecessor began, and that under circumstances of the most revolting cruelty. Between the two, this magnificent island has become almost depopulated. Rauperaha died some years ago.

The northern portion of the North Island is more or less mountainous, from the North Cape to Kaipara, and is unfitted for agricultural pursuits except in the valleys. From the Kaipara district to Taupo, including Auckland, the Thames, Waipa, and Waikato districts, the country is comparatively level, rising into downs, from which ascend isolated hills of more or less magnitude. The whole of these districts are well adapted for cultivation of every kind, and, with the exception of the valley of the Thames, are comparatively lightly wooded. The volcanic portion of the interior, around Tongariro, and in the vicinity of the boiling springs, is unfitted for the purposes of present colonization, and may not be brought into requisition for centuries to come; but it is one of the most singular volcanic regions on the earth, presenting, amongst other natural curiosities, a river of hot water, of considerable breadth, falling into a cascade of twenty feet over a ledge of rocks.

The southern districts of the North Island are admirably adapted to every species of cultivation. The country immediately in the vicinity of Wellington, with the exception of the fine valley of the Hutt, is hilly, but the vegetation on the summits of the hills is equally luxuriant with that in the valleys, presenting, in every respect, the very rankness of vegetation. There are few hills which, from their easy ascent and their roundness of outline, may not be cultivated to their summits,

NORTH ISLAND.

whenever the necessity for such cultivation shall arise, which, from the abundance of land in the valleys, cannot be the case for many generations to come. In the close vicinity of Wellington is the magnificent valley of the Wairarapa, extending from Cook's Strait to Hawke's Bay, and leading to the equally fine district of Ahuriri, almost the only eligible spot on which a future colony can be settled with advantage. This valley, for extent and fertility, is by far the finest in New Zealand, and will form a perfect garden for agricultural purposes, whilst the hills which bound it are equally well calculated to become the pasture grounds of countless flocks of sheep and herds of cattle. Of this valley we shall speak more hereafter.

The northern shores of Cook's Strait, from Wellington to New Plymouth, are of great value as arable and grazing land, with the exception, in some places, of a belt of sand extending inland some half dozen miles from the shores of the Strait. The district comprises Porirua, Otaki, Manawatu, and Wanganui, at which settlements are already existing. This portion of New Zealand is, for the most part, a rich alluvial soil, of great depth, interspersed with large patches of light loam, well adapted for wheat land, and is in every part abundantly watered. The district extends a long way into the interior, and is bounded by the Tararua chain of mountains which form so conspicuous and beautiful an object from Wellington, and by the volcanic mountain Tongariro. To the westward, it extends to the Taranaki district.

The latter, or New Plymouth district has, from its great productiveness, the beauty of its climate, and the facility which it presents for easy cultivation, been termed "the garden of New Zealand." By the natives themselves it is spoken of as a kind of terrestrial paradise. The Wellington natives, who were formerly inhabitants of the district, from which they were driven by Te Whero-Whero, become pathetic in their regrets and affectionate remembrance of their former country; and it is an, object of ambition with many of them to get on board a

NORTH ISLAND.

vessel bound for New Plymouth, to gaze once more upon the lovely outlines of its scenery. It is here that Mount Egmont rears its vast snowy cone, in isolated grandeur from the bosom of a huge plain. The author has seen some of the mountain chains of Europe, Asia, and Africa, but in no instance has he ever seen anything approaching to Mount Egmont in beauty. The country upon which it looks down is in every way worthy of its gigantic neighbour; but our purpose is outline, not description.

Yet notwithstanding the advantages of the beautiful districts of the North Island, occupied and unoccupied, and its almost unprecedented collection of fine harbours, the Middle Island will, in the future periods of the colony, become the site of agricultural and pastoral pursuits on a vast scale. Here are no bounds which any system of colonization can fill for centuries to come. The Middle Island is easily described as to its general outline. A great chain of mountains, of which we have already spoken, occupies nearly the whole of the western coast line; from these the land slopes gradually towards the east coast, forming an extended and comparatively unbroken plain from one end of the island to the other. Nelson is situated in Blind Bay, at the north-western extremity of the Middle Island; Canterbury in the midst, and Otago, the site of the now progressing settlement of New Edinburgh, is placed upon the southeastern coast. Of these we shall say more in the proper place.

Not to proceed to any greater length in our description of the general outlines of the country, we will conclude with an extract from an intelligent writer of the London press upon the subject.

"New Zealand exhibits a world in miniature. It would seem as if nature, isolating this country from the great continents, had atoned for its banishment by concentrating within it all the varied features and resources which lie so widely apart in the more extensive surfaces of the earth. It has its Alpine districts, snow-clad and bristling with glaciers, whose drainage, falling in foaming cataracts, is received into numerous, and

GENERAL CHARACTER OF SOIL.

some of them considerable rivers; its table lands and plains, sometimes flat, at others undulated by rounded and fertile hills. Valleys overspread with rich verdure; and forests, the trees of which occasionally rise to a height that leaves no similarity between them and the tallest pines of Norway, also combine to form the scenery of New Zealand. Nor are the more forbidding aspects and phenomena of nature wanting. The mountains on the eastern side of the North Island contain volcanoes, some of the plateaux are cleft by yawning fissures of unfathomed depth, and the south-western coast presents the inhospitable faces of craggy and stupendous rocks. So dreary and desolate is the north extremity of these islands, that the natives have fixed upon it as their "Styx," leading to the abodes of the dead. * * * * * *

"The soils change with almost every mile; but being constantly refreshed by disintegrations from the sides of the mountains, are generally fertile, all the rivers in the land being bordered with extensive banks of rich alluvia. Hence it would appear that though the more formidable mountains even of the Middle Island, would restrict cultivation in extent, yet they give to the available land a deeper and more productive soil. Even here the excellence of the land is equally attested by the luxuriant and verdant ferns which overrun the depressed parts of the entire country.

"To the fortunate position of the New Zealand mountain ridges may, in a great measure, be attributed the excellent climate which is unanimously assigned to this country. Stretching north and south, their snow-clad summits lie out of the sun's course, except when crossed by it. The land is, therefore, exempted from those terrible disruptions of snow, loosened by radiated or direct heat, which at times descend in overwhelming avalanches and torrents upon the lower regions of other mountain territories; while exhalations drawn from the boundless ocean on either side, by the east and west winds, are attracted to the highlands, which distribute them over the country in rains. The general temperature is even,

MOUNTAINS.

the thermometer rarely descending below forty-five degrees in winter (which begins in May), and in summer (commencing in November) seldom rising above eighty-five. But in many situations the weather is varied. West winds mostly prevail, and are sometimes attended with heavy squalls. In proof that one winter, at least, was not severe, Captain Cook, during his first visit to the country, sowed certain vegetables, and, though they could not have survived a European winter, he found, on his return, that they had not only survived a New Zealand one, but were healthful and vigorous.

"Possessing such a soil and climate, a rich and useful variety of vegetable productions may be looked for in New Zealand; and not in vain. The extensive forests we have before alluded to, chiefly composed of firs of different species (some of them unknown in Europe), might furnish a supply of valuable timber, which the profusion of some ages to come would not be able to exhaust. That it is well calculated for ship-building has been long proved, many vessels having been built of it in dockyards at Deptford. Trees of inferior growth also abound, some of them of excellent quality, well adapted for ornamental work, of a fine grain, and susceptible of a high polish. * * * *

"New Zealand is a favoured country. If the rugged and Alpine character of her southern districts offer a field for the cultivator comparatively small in extent, and interrupted by wide intervals of intractable waste, this is repaid by the superiority of the land capable of tillage. If, for the most part, her western coast, bristling with precipices, or shallowed by sandbars, repels the navigator, her eastern shores invite him to their deep and sheltered harbourage. The huge glaciers and plains of snow which cover the higher regions; the mighty torrents which pour down from them, forming stupendous cataracts; the lofty woods which crown their middle region; the hills which wind along their feet, decked with the brightest vegetation; the bold cliffs and promontories which breast the might

GENERAL ASPECT.

of the southern waves; the beautiful bays decked with numberless villages and canoes, all conspire to present a scene which even the rude eye of the navigator cannot behold without rapture.

"Possessing, then, such varied natural phenomena, with a general aspect whose constituents are seldom found congregated in so small a tract, thus presenting scenes of almost every clime, it is no poetical figure to call this unique land 'the world's epitome.'"

CHAPTER V. AUCKLAND

AUCKLAND.

CHAPTER V.

AUCKLAND.

First colonists – French attempt – Harbours of Auckland – Rivers – The town – Streets – Public buildings – Story of Makatu – Natural scenery – Suburbs – Timber – Soil – Society – Dress – Amusements – Servants – Prices – Friendship with the Natives – Religious and Educational Establishments.

IT is not our object in the following portion of this volume to enter more than is necessary upon the circumstances which led to the colonization of New Zealand. Suffice it to say that the islands were colonized by the New Zealand Company in defiance of the then Ministry, which even carried its opposition to the plan so far as to threaten to seize any ships which might be despatched for the purpose. The vigilance of the Government was however evaded, and a regular colonization of the North Island was commenced in 1839; Colonel William Wakefield being its leader in the ship Tory.

Several other emigrant ships having sailed for the same destination, it became necessary for the Home Government to despatch an officer to take formal possession of the island, and to adopt such regulations for the government of the emigrants who had sailed as might be deemed expedient. The gentleman to whom this charge was entrusted was Captain William Hobson, of the Royal Navy, an excellent, but decidedly improper person for the delicate office with which he had been entrusted. Consular powers were at first delegated to him, but with the power

FRENCH ATTEMPT ON NEW ZEALAND.

also to convert himself into Lieut.-Governor of New Zealand, if the step were approved of by the Governor of New South Wales, of which colony New Zealand was at the outset a dependency. The latter course was adopted, and Lieut.-Governor Hobson formally took possession of the islands. This was effected none too soon, for within a few weeks of New Zealand becoming a possession of the British Crown, the French frigate L'Aube arrived with a body of so called emigrants, but in reality convicts, whom the French Government had given to a company, called the "Nante Bordelaise Company," which had intended to take possession of the Middle Island as a French settlement, had not Captain Hobson luckily forestalled them.

The New Zealand Company's emigrants had disembarked at Port Nicholson, at the southern extremity of the North Island, and Captain Hobson, apparently bringing out with him some of the irritation felt by the Home Government at what was considered the audacity of the conduct of the New Zealand Company, resolved to place the seat of government as far as possible from the New Zealand Company's emigrants, who had set up a kind of government of their own. With this intention Captain Hobson proceeded to the Bay of Islands, nearly at the northern extremity of New Zealand, and there established his authority. But the place was so manifestly inadequate to the purpose required, that he was driven to seek out another locality, and eventually decided on Auckland as the capital of the country.

It would be to no purpose to enter into the conflicts to which this step on the part of Captain Hobson gave rise. Suffice it to say that nearly the whole period from the formation of the colony to the advent of Sir George Grey as Governor, was marked in the colony by ill-feeling between the rival settlements of the north and south, and at home, by a continued quarrel between the Colonial-office and the New Zealand Company, which, numbering many persons of parliamentary influence, could not readily be shaken off. The history of these squabbles is unworthy of notice, beyond the fact that between

DOUBLE HARBOURS OF AUCKLAND.

the two, the older colonists were ruined; the New Zealand Company being in little better condition than the old colonists whom they used, and then abused; – whilst the Colonial-office has conceded to the colonists the most complete powers of self-government. With these remarks the twelve years' history of the colony of New Zealand may be dismissed; and we will now proceed to notice the numerous settlements which have been formed in both islands of the colony.

The reasons which induced Captain Hobson to fix on Auckland as the seat of Government, were the numerous advantages which it possesses as a harbour. It is most singularly situated in this respect. The North Island here contracts to a breadth of three quarters of a mile only between the eastern and western seas, which wash the shores of New Zealand. The harbour of Auckland is on the east coast of the island, and within five miles of it on the west coast is the capacious bay of Manakau, which though inferior as a harbour, on account of its bar, is yet easily attainable for coasting vessels from Nelson, New Plymouth, and the numerous minor settlements of the west coast. Were a railway constructed – the hard woods of the colony would be sufficient – Auckland would possess two harbours, one on the east, and the other on the west side of the island, and thus the tedious navigation round the North Cape would be avoided, whilst vessels bound to or from the Australian colonies would save several days of their voyage.

The east coast, on which Auckland is situated, presents a succession of harbours or safe anchorages. The large bay in which they are contained, is called the Gulf of Shouraki, and comprises Coromandel Harbour, Matakana, Mahurangi, Waiheki, the Waitemata, upon which Auckland is situated, with others affording safe anchorage to ships of all sizes, in any weather. The gulf is protected from the ocean by the Great Barrier Island, and towards its south-western extremity lie a protected group of ten or twelve islands, stretching in a southeast direction, for nearly twenty miles, ending in the Waitemata, as aforesaid.

RIVERS.

The town stands on the western extremity of the Waitemata. Some four or five miles west of the town the river bends southwards till it reaches within a mile of Manakau, on the west coast. To the southward of the town the Tamaki penetrates in a southerly direction till, as has been said, it reaches within three quarters of a mile western waters. The Tamaki is the great highway of the settlement, most of the outlying districts being on or near its shores.

The harbours and rivers in the vicinity of the Auckland or Manakau harbours are numerous. The harbour of Kaipara is within fifteen miles, and into this four considerable rivers discharge themselves. The Thames and Piako are near the entrance of the gulf, and wind through a highly fertile but thickly wooded plain of sixty miles in length, by from sixteen to twenty miles in breadth; both being navigable for small vessels for fifty miles, whilst the approach to them from Auckland is practicable for canoes and small boats, so well is that approach sheltered. In the vicinity of the western or Manakau harbour is the Waikato river, navigable for canoes to the extent of a hundred miles, and watering the fertile and extensive plains of the Waipa on the western side of the island. About sixty or seventy miles from the sea, the Waikato is joined by the Waipa, which is again navigable for canoes, through, perhaps, one of the finest agricultural districts in the world. The delta formed by the two rivers is a tract of rich level land, and they water an extensive plain only separated from the plain of the Thames by a range of low hills.

Auckland thus communicates with the Thames, the Tamaki, and a number of harbours and inlets on the east coast, whilst on the west coast by means of the Manakau harbour it has all but direct water communication with the largest rivers and plains in the North Island of New Zealand.

It is somewhat surprising that the Auckland colonists do not pay more attention to the Manakau harbour than they do. It lies exactly opposite to Sydney, the capital of the Australian colonies, a straight line crossing both. A vessel proceeding

TOWN.

round the North Cape to New Plymouth occupies six days, or even more in the voyage; by starting from the western harbour the voyage is performed in twenty-four hours. Nelson, too, by way of the North Cape is distant eight days; from the Manakau harbour the voyage may be accomplished in less than half the time. By the same route, the voyage to Wellington is shorter by almost one half than the usual route round the East Cape.

The town of Auckland stands on the northern side of the isthmus which divides the Waitemata from the Manakau harbour. It has a frontage on the water of about a mile and a half, extending about a mile inland. At present the greater number of houses are near the shores of the harbour, and in the bays and headlands with which it is indented. These bays are backed with valleys running inland, and the lower parts of the town being thus separated, the streets which connect the different portions of the town are somewhat steep and inconvenient.

Auckland has a very pleasing appearance as viewed from the harbour, St. Paul's Church with its neat spire forming the most prominent feature. Several other public buildings form also conspicuous objects, as the barracks, the Scotch Church, the Colonial Hospital, the Wesleyan Institution, the Roman Catholic Church, and last, not least, the windmill, always a pleasing feature in a landscape. All these, backed by Mount Eden, make a more imposing appearance than might have been expected from a town of scarcely a dozen years' standing.

The shores of the harbour on which the town is built form a series of small bays, each of which has a distinct character. Official Bay is the one in which the Government officers, and the cottages of the officers are, for the most part, to be found, and in this bay, many a pretty wooden villa peeps out from its own shrubbery more pleasingly than many of higher pretensions in our own country. The next indentation of the land is termed Commercial Bay, though why so termed is difficult to determine, as the commerce of the town is carried on elsewhere;

STREETS.

it is rather the Wapping of the port. Beyond this is Mechanics' Bay, so called as having been allotted to the Government mechanics on the foundation of the town. It has a ship-builder's yard, a rope walk, a native hostelry and some small shops, and is the rendezvous of the natives who visit Auckland in their canoes with produce from the surrounding neighbourhood. Beyond this is Freeman's Bay, which is chiefly occupied by saw-pits, brick-kilns, boat-builders' yards, and other adjuncts to a rapidly rising city.

The principal streets are Princes-street, Shortland-Crescent, Queen-street, and Wakefield-street. The first is broad, straight, spacious, and well-made. Its principal buildings are St. Paul's Church, the Treasury, the Bank, and the Masonic Hotel. Shortland-crescent, which connects Princes-street with Queen-street, is built on a steep ascent – so steep, indeed, on one side, that it might be the cause of a similar accident to one which occurred at Russell, in the Bay of Islands, at which place Captain Hobson first hoisted his flag, and in one of the streets of which Mrs. Hobson's cow was killed by tumbling out of Smith-street into Hobson-street, the descent being over a precipice of some fifty feet.

Uniformity in the town has been set at defiance, every one building according to his means or fancy. In addition to this, Governor Hobson took it into his head that in a warm climate, it would be an advantage to have as many narrow lanes as possible, so as to exclude the direct rays of the sun! His Excellency once, in a conversation with the author, adduced the example of the streets of Cairo as having given him the idea. The consequence is, that the original plan of the town, a very injudicious one, is intersected with a number of narrow lanes, of only fourteen feet in width. We recollect one of these called Chancery-lane, which even at the outset of the town was physically as great a nuisance, as is legally its prototype at the top of Fleet-street.

In the newer streets of the town, brick is taking the place of the dangerous material, wood; and many first-rate shops of sub-

PUBLIC BUILDINGS.

stantial build and elegant exterior, are rising on all sides. The shops generally would be considered good in most provincial towns in England, but from their being scattered here and there, they have an irregular appearance. Queen-street is the one which leads to the harbour, and must eventually become of importance. It is about half a mile long, nearly level, and almost straight, either of which peculiarities is in Auckland a novelty.

The principal public buildings are the Britomart and Albert barracks, having accommodation for 1,000 men. They are solid and substantial buildings, formed of scoria, a volcanic lava, which abounds in the neighbourhood of Auckland, but this stone, being of a dark gray hue, gives them a sombre appearance. The Albert barracks, constructed of the same material, stand a quarter of a mile inland. Of a similar construction are the Government stores, the hospital, the magazine, and the commissariat offices. The position of the barracks, especially of the Albert barracks, is a military failure, from their being commanded by rising ground immediately above them, whilst they are within range of shot and shell, from ships in the harbour. Their only defence is a scoria wall, ten or twelve feet high, loop-holed, and with flanking angles. Their position is remarkably healthful and cheerful.

The gaol is an ill-constructed pest-house situated in a swamp, on the west side of Queen-street. Our notice of it is coupled by a remembrance of a somewhat romantic story connected with the building on its first erection.

A chief, named Makatu, one of the most aristocratic of the chiefs of the Bay of Islands, if not the highest amongst them, had committed a heartless murder, as it was considered by the European residents, and in one respect it certainly was so, though generally speaking it was net contrary to the barbarous customs of the New Zealanders. The circumstances were as follows. A Mrs. Robinson, the widow of a late settler at the Bay of Islands, had a servant who was dreaded on all hands for his strength and brutality. This fellow had on all occasions

STORY OF MAKATU.

made a set at Makatu, who was himself a tall fine man, but unskilled as a fighter and a wrestler. The servant man, whose name I forget, had on several occasions struck, thrown, and otherwise maltreated the chief, who was unable to defend himself against such an opponent; nor could he, indeed, according to New Zealand notions of rank, he being the highest in the scale, and his tormentor being regarded as a cookee, or slave, the lowest. Makatu, therefore, according to the custom of his countrymen, bided his time for revenge, after his country's fashion. This at length came; one day finding his enemy asleep, he drove his tomahawk into his brain, and killed him on the spot. This, the natives, as they told me at the time, approved of, and had he done nothing more, they would have defended him to the last drop of their blood.

But, unhappily, he did something more; – he went to the house of the dead man's mistress, and informed her of what he he had done. She told him that, now the English had got possession of the country, they would certainly hang him for murder; and, under the impulse of anger, she applied to him taunting epithets and injudicious abuse. The blood of the chief was again stung by these, and he told her that if he was to be hung by the pakehas (foreigners), he would have something more to be hung for; when he killed the unfortunate woman, and a child who happened to be present. The above version of the affair was told to me by the chief himself, shortly previous to his execution, when visiting him as one of the magistrates of the territory; and his own version did not differ materially from the fact at the trial.

Shortly after the murder had taken place, I was going from Wellington to Auckland, in a Sydney brigantine, and, taking the western passage round the North Cape, had reached Bream Head, on the east coast. On rounding the headland, we found ourselves in the midst of the most formidable fleet of war canoes I had yet seen in New Zealand; – all standing to the northward, and a more imposing sight I never saw before nor since. Our Sydney skipper, never having been on the coast

STORY OF MAKATU.

before, and having a horror of New Zealand warriors, ordered his men to two ratter guns, which lumbered his deck. I begged of him to desist, assuring him that, numerous as they were, the natives meant us no harm. As we passed some of the canoes, I asked them on what expedition they were bound, hut could get not a word in reply, till at length the canoe of their chief came up to the vessel, and told me what had occurred. I advised him not to act rashly in the matter, to which he replied, that "his countrymen were not in the habit of acting rashly, but that they were strong enough to right themselves if aggrieved." The canoes were, in fact, going to the Bay of Islands, to hold a council with the natives there as to what should be done in the emergency.

The council was held, and amongst many dissentients, it was agreed that Makatu ought not to have killed Mrs. Robinson and her child, and that he should be delivered up to the pakehas. This was accordingly done, and he was brought by an English man-of-war to Auckland for trial.

At the trial he was, as a matter of course, found guilty, and sentenced to death. Numbers of his kinsmen had attended the trial, and were much struck at his having a legal gentleman appointed to defend him. "What is this for?" said one of the natives to me, – "you know he is guilty as well as we do, and yet you appoint a man who knows nothing of the matter, to persuade the judge that he is not guilty." The proceeding was perfectly incomprehensible to the straight-forward New Zealanders, who only saw in it an indication that we did not want to hang their chief after all. They were, however, disappointed; and when they found that he was to be put to death, they begged earnestly of the Governor that they might be his executioners in the honourable mode of their county, offering to tomahawk him before Captain Hobson's face, if he suspected that they would connive at his escape. To this request it was, of course, impossible that the Governor could accede; and thus one of the highest chiefs of New Zealand was left to the hands of the hangman, if such could be found in the colony.

STORY OF MAKATU.

The poor man himself was incredulous, and did not believe that he should be put to death for what he contended was in accordance with his country's customs, and he knew nothing of ours. On the night preceding his execution, or, rather, on the morning of his execution, I was with him in his prison about one o'clock, when he was still arguing that we only meant to frighten him. Suddenly the noise of the workmen commencing the erection of the scaffold struck him, and he asked me, "What is that noise?" I told him it was the noise of the carpenters, building his "house of death." He listened a moment, then burst into a flood of tears; these were as suddenly dashed aside, when he became as composed as before, asking for a pipe, which was brought to him. He afterwards received the consolations of religion from the Rev. Mr. Preece, if I recollect rightly, and continued calm till the hour of his execution.

Being somewhat curious to see how such a man would die, I committed the abomination of witnessing his execution from a rising ground in front of the gaol. Hangman, from what I was afterwards told, there was none. A wretch had been found who had consented to perform the disgusting office for a considerable reward; but this having got abroad, the lower orders of the colonists declared that if any European performed such an office towards a native chief, he should never see another sun rise; and this threat would, no doubt, have been fulfilled to the letter. The authorities therefore paraded the fellow in front of the gaol during the execution, in order to show that he had no hand in it. The upshot was that the brave fellow actually assisted to hang himself, by adjusting the rope which had been put round his neck by some one behind a temporary screen, and then stepping boldly on the drop, where, in a few seconds, he was launched into eternity. According to the testimony of the authorities who were behind the screen, the brave fellow did nearly the whole himself: as soon as he saw the file of soldiers drawn up in front of the gaol; snatching the rope, with the exclamation "Make haste! I have seen enough." It never transpired who really was his executioner, which was, no doubt,

STORY OF MAKATU.

one of the gentlemen who attended him on the scaffold. I made many efforts to learn, but in vain, or most assuredly he should have had all the fame which could arise from the deed, as far as these pages could confer it.

An incident occurred to me at the execution of the chief which may not he without its uses for reflection in this country. The natives of the Buy of Islands had all returned previous to the chief's execution; with the exception of a few who were waiting in the vicinity in the hope of receiving his remains, which I believe they obtained. Seeing three or four natives only in front of the scaffold, and like myself, at a distance from it, I stepped up to them, and at once recognised a Waikato chief and his attendants. I asked him what brought him to such a sight. He replied, "I have come from Waikato to see Makatu die. His father killed my father in the wars of E. Hongi with the Waikatos." To this I replied, that the death of Makatu would be no satisfaction to him, seeing that he had never been injured by him. "Very good," replied the Waikato, "but nevertheless, I have never had the opportunity of revenging my father's death, and my witnessing the death of Makatu will be utu (payment) for the act of his father." As soon as the drop had fallen, I turned to the Waikato chief, saying, "Well, are you satisfied with your utu?" "No; " said he, with an angry expression, "I am not satisfied; that man was my greatest enemy for my father's sake, but I would not have served him thus. I would have killed him in fight, or I would have put his head in the oven (the New Zealand threat of eating an enemy), but I would not have hung him. Ka kino te pakehah? (A cold-blooded man is the European.) And the brave Waikato stalked off with the dignity of a Roman, no doubt to give his tribe no very elevated ideas of our mode of putting people to death. I felt heartily ashamed of it too.

I have always been of opinion that Makatu ought not, under all circumstances, to have been executed, and I am of that opinion still; notwithstanding the barbarity of his crime. Our au-

STORY OF MAKATU.

thority in the island was scarcely of two years' standing, and after all, the customs of his own country, barbarous as they were, were in his favour. He too disdained to conceal the truth, and it was from his own lips that the first evidence of his crime came. Had he held his peace, it would have been difficult to have convicted him, if not impossible; but he did not conceal a single item. Had he killed only the man who sought to make him a butt whereon to exercise his brute strength, I do not believe that a single European on the island would have been in favour of his death. And I have no doubt he spoke the entire truth when he told me that he would not have harmed Mrs. Robinson, but that her taunts worked him up to such a pitch of anger that he lost all self-control; a pardonable fault among demi-savages, and this was not taken into account at the trial. The man was tried as an Englishman, and by the laws of Englishmen. I urged these views at the time, and was met with the reply that the natives themselves acquiesced in his trial and sentence. They did so, and I will put the reason why on record. Makatu was the chief of his tribe, but his father dying, or having been killed – I forget which – in his infancy, a brother of the deceased chief, according to a custom well known amongst those conversant with New Zealand, was appointed to the chieftainship, till Makatu was deemed fit to take charge of the tribe. The uncle, a man of considerable talent – which he has evinced by always keeping well with the English government – had sufficient influence with his people to keep Makatu out of his birthright; the consequence was that the young man, finding himself unable to regain his right position, had become soured and somewhat erratic in his conduct. The uncle had his own views in getting him out of the way, and his influence was sufficient amongst his people to induce them to look on the matter in the same light. Had this been otherwise, the fleet of canoes which I met as before related, joined with the Bay of Islands natives, would have defied any

THE GOVERNOR'S "FRIEND."

power which we then possessed in the country to capture the young chief, much less to put him to death. The cause of native acquiescence may hence be easily guessed.

I consider Governor Hobson to have been inconsistent in not having pardoned the man after trial; or, at most, transported him, if deemed necessary. Of course the judge had no alternative but to convict, and sentence him according to English laws. But to the inconsistency of Governor Hobson in executing him, because the parties murdered were Europeans, the Governor urging that if he were pardoned no European life would be safe. I had one day been walking with his Excellency in the Government domain, when, on our return, we found a large tribe of natives assembled on the lawn of Government House. On arriving amongst them, the Governor introduced me to their chief – a fine, intelligent-looking man, lying on the ground basking in the sunshine. I will not mention the chiefs name, nor his tribe, as he is still living, and my mention of the circumstance I am about to relate might prejudice some emigrant reader of my book, and lead to results for which I should be sorry. I had never before seen the chief, though well acquainted with his character from the Port Nicholson natives, who had formerly had considerable experience of his sanguinary propensities. It was difficult to reconcile such acts as were attributed to him, with the laughing, good-humoured countenance before me. I therefore determined to know something more of my new acquaintance.

Governor Hobson mentioned to him that I had come from Port Nicholson, calling the chief at the same time his "very excellent friend!" shortly afterwards leaving us together. On the Governor's leaving us, I invited the chief to take a glass of wine with me – an invitation which he at once accepted, followed by several of his retinue, who squatted themselves about the floor of the apartment. Of these, according to New Zealand etiquette, I took no notice, in the presence of their chief. Something like the following colloquy – for it is one of recollection – now began on his part –

A CHIEF'S MODE OF ESTABLISHING AUTHORITY.

"So you come from Port Nicholson – do you know Dicky Barrett?"

"Yes, very well."

"Ah! Dicky Barrett is a cunning man – a capital hand at running away."

"Not exactly so; unless Dicky Barrett misinforms me, he made you run away."

"No; I was not there when my people retreated. If I had been, the case would have been different. Nevertheless, they put plenty of heads in the oven" (eat them).

"Exactly so; Dicky gives you credit of that."

"And why not? it was our custom before you pakehas came, but now we are missionaries, and know better.

"I am very glad to hear it; but I am somewhat surprised to hear the things said of you which I have heard. You appear to me to be an unlikely man to exercise cruelty in any shape."

"So I am, except from necessity – but what do you mean?"

"Why, Dicky Barrett told me that you had the throats of twenty prisoners cut, whilst you lay on the ground, receiving their blood into your mouth!"

"So I did, but did he tell you the reason why?

"No!"

"Then I will." Here the chief sprang from his chair to his feet, and pacing up and down the room according to the most approved fashion of New Zealand oratory, delivered himself to the following effect: –

"In my younger days my authority over the tribes was not well established. We had taken some prisoners in battle, and a tributary chief laid claim to them; asserting that he had taken them, and that they were his. This I resisted, and asserted my right, as supreme chief, to my share. This was again refused, when I sent some of my people to fetch what I considered my share of the prisoners, and I ordered them to be killed as you describe for the purpose of establishing my authority, with which

FATHER AND SON.

no one afterward dared to interfere, or I would have served them the same."

The above was delivered in the oratorical language of the New Zealanders, of which I understood little, this differing from the ordinary language of communication with Europeans. The substance of it was interpreted by my late friend Dr. Martin, who was present.

"But," continued the chief who thus converted cruelty into policy – "if you blame me for this, a matter of necessity – what do you say to that man? He shot his own father! Aire mai, curree" (Come here, dog). At the summons, a tall, ill-looking vagabond sprang from the floor on which he was squatted, in obedience to the orders of his chief – though himself a chief of inferior order.

"That man," continued he, "shot his own father, in this way. The father was the chief of a small tribe of mine, and the tribe had received some offence from a neighbouring small tribe. The son wished to go to war with the offenders, and had persuaded the people to take part with him, but the father, as head of the tribe, forbade it. Let us go without his consent, said the son. The people replied, We cannot do it, he is our chief, and we must obey him. The father said, Refer it to me as the supreme chief. The son refused, and again asked the people to go with him to war, but they would not, saying, Your father is our chief and we must obey him. Would you go to war if I were your chief? asked the son. We would – was the answer. Then I am your chief, said the son, and taking up a musket he shot his father before their faces."

"And why did not you put him to death?" asked I.

"Where would have been the good of that? He is nobody," – casting at the same time a contemptuous glance at the brute. "He is my dog, and one more or less makes no difference. He has his uses, and his father was little better than himself. But we are missionaries now."

These were Governor Hobson's "very excellent friends," Their murders made no difference; but Makatu, following out

DESCRIPTION OF AUCKLAND.

the very same practices, had killed two Europeans, and therefore he was put to what somebody has called the "worst possible use," and was hung. Peace be to his ashes, for a milder or more intellectual-looking man I never saw, though that intellect had been warped by circumstances which were above his cunning. How seldom are the two qualities united, and what a dangerous enemy of mankind is that man in which intellect and cunning are united!

Do not, however, let the reader run into any mistake about the cruelty of the New Zealanders. They will never eat him, if only for their own bantering reason, that "Europeans are too salt." If he have occasion to visit any of their pahs, he will experience a degree of hospitality such as he never met with in his own country out of the circle of his relatives and friends. The food may be plain, but it will be of the best they can afford; and the welcome will be hearty. If he be a gentleman, they will detect it without the knife and fork ordeal of Lansdowne House, and he will find his hosts quite as gentlemanly as he is. If he be not a gentleman, they will feed him to his stomach's content, and – look down upon him. But we are forgetting Auckland.

The town of Auckland is, however, too small to present any features worth dwelling upon, so that we will pass on to a subject of more importance to the intending emigrant – viz., to the agricultural and other features of the country districts; and here we will follow an admirable description of the province, published originally in the New Zealander, a local newspaper, and from thence transferred to the pages of the Australian and New Zealand Gazette.

The Suburban District comprises the rising ground by which the town is sheltered. Many of the choicest spots are already occupied by neat-looking private houses. Overlooking the town and the harbour, and commanding a view of the gulf, with the "Great Barrier" and "Little Barrier" Islands in the far distance, and the nearer islands which give shelter to the Waitemata, these rising grounds possess numerous pretty sites.

NATURAL SCENERY.

But, generally speaking, the scenery in this district is neither bold nor picturesque, and is altogether unlike the general character of New Zealand scenery – being comparatively bare of trees, and distinguished only by the number of its volcanic hills. The surrounding country is open and undulating, intersected in all directions by the numerous creeks of the Waitemata and the Manukau, and easily available for agricultural purposes; but it presents few of the characteristics of a New Zealand landscape, and it has nothing to mark it as a foreign country.

In beauty of natural scenery, New Zealand will bear comparison with England in most of its principal features – mountain, river, coast, and harbour. There is nothing in England, for instance, to equal the snow-clad, silvery-peaked Mount Egmont, or the Alpine ranges of the Southern Island. The lower part of the Waikato River – the upper reaches of the Thames – the scenery about the narrow pass of the Manawatu – and the wild grandeur of the Wanganui, fully equal, in their natural beauty, any of the river scenery of England. The scenery of the west coast, between Waikato and Mokau, and that of the Southern Island in the neighbourhood of Milford Haven, will bear comparison with the finest views of the British coast; while Monganui, the Bay of Islands, Port Nicholson, Queen Charlotte's Sound, and Akaroa, are unequalled in their natural features by the harbours of Great Britain.

Strangers, however, are frequently very unreasonably disappointed with the natural beauty of New Zealand. They are landed at some port which possesses, perhaps, no great natural beauty: they never travel twenty miles from home, and they conclude that the accounts which have been written of the country – so far, at least, as beauty of scenery is concerned – have been written in a spirit of gross exaggeration. A foreigner having heard much of English scenery, put down in Lincolnshire and Suffolk, and not travelling beyond the borders of the county, would be equally disappointed, and with as much reason.

SUBURBS.

The country in the neighbourhood of the town – comprising the isthmus which divides the two harbours – is much of it cultivated. Solid stone walls and quickset hedges are generally taking the place of temporary wooden fences of posts and rails. The greater part of the land is laid down in permanent pasture. At Epsom, distant about two and a half miles from the town, and in the Tamaki district, distant six miles, there are grass and clover paddocks as large, as rich, as well laid down, and as substantially fenced as any grass land in England. Owing to the neat and uncolonial style of cultivation, and to the absence of trees having a foreign appearance, the country around Auckland presents the appearance of a home-like English landscape. One half of the road across the isthmus, from Auckland to Onehunga, has been macadamized, and the remaining half is good during the greater part of the year. With scarcely any exception, the whole of the land on each side of the road is already fenced and cultivated; and the traveller, as he passes along, is never out of sight of a house.

The town and suburbs of Auckland extend across the isthmus fur the greater part of a mile; and the village of Onehunga, on the other side, spreads itself inland for nearly an equal distance: almost adjoining the suburbs of Auckland, too, is the village of Newmarket, and the remainder of the road is studded here and there by wayside houses. At no very distant period there can be little doubt but that the opposite coasts of New Zealand will thus be connected by one continued line of street.

Upwards of forty thousand acres of land within the borough of Auckland are the property of private individuals, held under grants from the Crown. About ten thousand acres have been cultivated, of which the greater part is substantially fenced. The most noticeable feature of the country is the large quantity of cattle to be seen grazing in the district. Nearly five thousand head, besides horses and sheep, are depastured on the isthmus alone.

Immediately adjoining the boundary of the borough, to the south-east, is the Papakura district, extending along the eastern

TIMBER. – SOIL.

shores by the Manukau harbour for a distance of ten or twelve miles: this district is bounded on the west by the waters of the Manukau, which deeply indent it in various directions, with its numerous creeks. The centre of the district comprises a plain or flat valley, running inland, in an easterly direction, from the Papakura Pah, for many miles, until it reaches the Wairoa River. About one-half of this plain is densely timbered – the remaining portion being clear and open, but agreeably diversified with clumps and belts, which give it a park-like appearance. These belts and clumps consist of a rich variety of wood; the graceful tree-fern, and the deep green, glittering-leafed karaka, clustering in unusual profusion around the tall stems of the statelier forest trees. Surrounded by these ornamental woods, melodious with the song of birds, are here and there clear open spots of ground of various size, sheltered from every wind – choice sites for homestead, park, or garden. The soil of the plain is of various character – a considerable portion consisting of a light dry vegetable soil, well adapted for clover paddocks, or for the growth of barley: about an equal quantity is dark-coloured, good, strong flax land, suitable for wheat and potatoes, the remainder being rich swampy land, for the most part capable of drainage. On the north and on the south, the plain is bounded by rugged ridges, densely covered with kauri and other timber; and it is watered by a small but never-failing stream of excellent water. The plain of Papakura is best seen from the highest point of the southern ridge, about four miles to the south-east of the site of the old Pah. There may be seen, on a bright sunny day, a panoramic view, than which, in the whole of New Zealand, there are few more beautiful.

The isthmus alone is capable of maintaining a dense population; and the country around it is admirably fitted for carrying out the principle of concentration. Vain have hitherto been all attempts to find its equal in New Zealand. At six other points, in various parts of the country, have settlements been planted. Five of them have been founded by colonizing companies, systematically,, and with all the zeal and vigour

SOCIETY.

which public spirit and private enterprise can supply: no pains have been spared to render them attractive, and to draw the stream of emigration to their shores: and yet, at this moment, nearly one-third of the whole European population of the islands of New Zealand is to be found within a radius often miles of Auckland. With a revenue, at the single port of Auckland, alone equal to that of the whole of the New Zealand Company's Settlements, and with about five hundred vessels of various sizes, and nearly two thousand canoes, yearly entering the port, it is obvious now to all – since prejudice and party-feeling have passed away – that "this neighbourhood combines advantages for a large and prosperous agricultural and commercial settlement, not elsewhere, to be found in this colony."

The population of the borough of Auckland amounts to between seven and eight thousand, of whom about four thousand five hundred occupy the town and its suburbs.

Considering its size, Auckland possesses the elements of a considerable society. The officers of the civil government are themselves a numerous body. Being the head-quarters of the bishopric of New Zealand and of the Church of Rome – the centre of the Church Missionary Society's operations in New Zealand, and of the Wesleyan mission for the South Seas – Auckland has an advantage over most small colonial communities in the number of its ministers of religion. It is also the head-quarters of a regiment; and has representatives from the brigade, commissariat, artillery, and engineer departments. Two battalions of military pensioners, enrolled for service in New Zealand, with their officers, are located in the neighbourhood; and a ship of war frequently lies at anchor in the port. A banking establishment connected with the Union Bank of Australia has also been established here.

In one respect, Auckland is happily distinguished from most small colonial communities. Society is not divided by political animosities or religious bickerings. Party spirit is neither violent nor general; and owing to the perfect ventilation afforded by the newspapers, the political atmosphere never

DRESS. – AMUSEMENTS.

becomes surcharged by an accumulation of noxious vapours. In colonies, especially those not having representative institutions, a free and independent press is absolutely essential: and in all our colonies the press does actually enjoy unbounded freedom of speech; but this very liberty sometimes impairs its real influence; for unchecked freedom of speech tempts to the habitual use of strong language, and what is gained in freedom is lost in weight.

A little more attention to dress, and somewhat more formality of manner, are observable in Auckland than in the other settlements. The colonial practice of standing idly smoking at the shop doors in broad daylight, and of wearing a bush costume, is more honoured here in the breach than the observance. There is little, in fact, in the dress of the people, to remind a stranger that he is out of England. Black hats and dark cloth coats do not, as in warmer climates, give place to cotton jackets and straw hats. Mouslin-de-laines sometimes do duty for silks and satins; in other respects, ladies dress much the same in Auckland as in England. But, being so far removed from the fountain-head, it cannot be surprising if they are now and then, though very unintentionally, a leetle behind the fashion.

In so small a community, much amusement cannot of course be expected. Once a week, during the summer, a regimental band plays for a couple of hours on the well-kept lawn in the government grounds. With the lovers of music, and with those who are fond of "seeing and being seen," The Band is a favourite lounge. Three or four balls in the course of the year – a concert or two – an occasional pic-nic or water party – a visit to the island of Kauwau – a trip to the Waikato, or the Lake of Roturua – are among the few amusements which aid in beguiling the lives of the Auckland fashionable world; while dissipation in the milder form of temperance and tea-meetings, school feasts, stitcheries, and lectures, suffices for the recreation of the graver portion of the Auckland world.

Almost the only serious drawback to New Zealand, as a place

SERVANTS. – PRICES.

of residence for ladies, is the difficulty of finding and keeping good servants – a difficulty by no means greater in New Zealand probably than in other colonies; but not the less felt on that account. The families of the pensioners have not supplied the demand in the manner and to the extent that was anticipated. And those of the "needlewomen" who have proved to be a valuable addition to the community, were too few in number to supply the demand. Good servants, too, brought out from England, cannot, of course, be expected long to remain single; and even if they do make promise of perpetual celibacy, they cannot, of course, be expected to observe it.

Almost everything necessary to comfort and convenience may now be procured in Auckland; but not always of the best quality. Although cheaper than Wellington, Auckland is by no means a cheap place of residence; certainly not more so than an English town of the same size. House-rent and servants' wages are at least double what they are in England. But there are no taxes, rates, or dues of any kind. Clothing of all kinds is also, of course, dearer in New Zealand than in England. But wine, spirits, and groceries are, for the most part, cheaper. Bread and butchers'-meat are about the same. The fish caught near Auckland, although of but moderate quality, is plentiful and cheap. Vegetables are also abundant; during the summer of 1852 there were brought to market by the natives, in canoes alone, upwards of eleven hundred kits of onions (about twenty tons); upwards of four thousand kits of potatoes (more than one hundred tons); besides corn, cabbages, and kumeras. Peaches grown by the natives, and sufficiently good for culinary purposes, are very abundant and cheap.

To those who live in the bush, or at a distance from the town, and who are independent of hired labour, the cost of living in the northern part of New Zealand is very cheap. A tolerable house can be built of raupo, at a cost of about ten pounds. Pigs can be purchased from the natives for less than twopence a pound. Poultry, and turkeys in particular, thrive better than in England, and almost find themselves; and wheat, potatoes,

FRIENDSHIP WITH THE NATIVES.

pumpkins, &c., can be easily raised, or can be purchased for a trifle from the natives. And, for life in the bush, the most inexpensive clothing is sufficient.

It is no inconsiderable compensation for some of the minor drawbacks of a colonial life to those who reside in New Zealand, to feel that they are not surrounded by a population suffering from want or the privation of the necessaries of life. As far as mere food is concerned, the whole European community may be said to live well. Those who have not, or who could not have animal food twice a day would think themselves ill off. A beggar would be looked upon as a curiosity: and those who may be reduced to distress by an accident or sudden bereavement, always meet with the ready and effectual sympathy of their friends and neighbours. And indeed it may with truth be said of the people of Auckland and its neighbourhood that they are ever ready, according to their means, to aid in works of charity and benevolence.

Strange as it may seem, both person and property are more secure in this once dreaded land than in civilized England; for, with the exception of petty pilfering, crime is rare. Fearing, probably, a collision between the colonists and the natives, the founders of some of the more recent settlements have planted them far away to the southward, and as distant as possible from the native peopled districts. But a different feeling prevails among the northern colonists: the people of Auckland and its neighbourhood were for several years almost entirely supplied by the natives with animal food, fish, potatoes, corn, and firewood; and, to a considerable extent, with labour. The natives have also been extensive purchasers of horses, flour-mills, and coasting craft; large consumers of imported goods; and, by means of their labour, they have also already augmented the exports of the North. In the absence of the natives but little flax and not a single kauri spar would be exported from New Zealand. Their territorial rights as owners of the soil, too, have always been scrupulously recognized and respected by the settlers in the district; and each party, from the first,

RELIGIOUS AND EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS.

has seen the advantage to be derived from the presence of the other; and friendly relations have uniformly been maintained between them. Good-humoured, every ready to enjoy a joke and a laugh, and always appearing self-satisfied and contented, their presence does much to give life to the northern districts of New Zealand.

RELIGIOUS AND EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENTS OF AUCKLAND.

PLACES OF WORSHIP IN THE AUCKLAND DISTRICT.

Auckland. – Church of England – St. Paul's, Princes-street; St. Matthew's, Hobson-street; and St. Barnabas, Parnell. Church of Rome – St. Patrick's, Chapel-street. Presbyterian – Kirk, Waterloo Quadrant. Wesleyan – First Chapel, Victoria Quadrant and High-street; Second Chapel, Waterloo Quadrant. Independent – Chapel, High-street; Second Congregational worships in the Mechanics' Institute, Chancery-street. Primitive Methodists – Chapel, Edward-street.

Village of Epsom. – Episcopalian and Wesleyan Chapel.

Village of Remuera. – Episcopalian Church.

Village of Onehunga. – Episcopalian Church, Roman Catholic and Wesleyan Chapels.

Village of Panmure. – Episcopalian Church and Roman Catholic Chapel.

Village of Howick. – Episcopalian Church, Roman Catholic and Wesleyan Chapels.

Village of Otahuhu. – Episcopalian Church

PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

Auckland. – St. John's College, Bishop's Auckland. Wesleyan College and Seminary, Upper Queen-street; ditto Day-school, High-street. Two Episcopalian Day-schools, Hobson-street, and Eden-crescent. Roman Catholic Day-school, Hobson-street. (Besides a number of private grammar-schools and academies.) Day-schools in connection with the several deno-

NATIVE SCHOOLS.

minations are established at the villages. Sabbath-schools have been opened in connection with the several places of worship in the city and villages, which are well attended by intelligent teachers.

NATIVE SCHOOLS.

St. Stephen's (for native girls), under the superintendence of Rev. A. Reid. Takapuna (Roman Catholic), under the superintendence of the Roman Catholic bishop.

The following are amongst some of the more recent statistics of the northern province: –

The return of the revenue and expenditure for the province of New Ulster for the quarter ending June 30, 1852, as compared with the corresponding quarter of last year, shows the following totals: – Auckland: revenue, in 1851, 9,879l. 8s. 6d.; in 1852, 10, 934l. 6s. 7d. Expenditure, in 1851, 7,484l. 15s. 3d.; in 1852, 8,265l. 7s. 0d. New Plymouth: revenue, in 1851, 583l. 12s. 8d.; in 1852, 782l. 16s. 8d. Expenditure, in 1851, 657l. 7s. 9d.; in 1852, l,049l. 5s. 2d. Russell: revenue,, in 1851, 395l. 14s. 9d.; in 1852, 321l. 4s. Expenditure, in 1851, 395l. 12s. 4d.; in 1852, 433l. 5s. 2d. Total for the Province: revenue, in 1851, 10,858l. 15s. 11d.; in 1852, 12,038l. 7s. 3d. Expenditure, in 1851, 8,537l. 15s. 4d.; in 1852, 9,747l. 15s. 4d.

CHAPTER VI. GEOLOGICAL SKETCHES.

GEOLOGICAL SKETCHES.

CHAPTER VI.

Geological sketches of the province of New Ulster – Secondary formations-Tertiary and recent deposits – Metalliferous deposits, mineral veins, &c. – Localities of minerals and metals.

THE following admirable sketch of the geology of the Auckland district is taken from the Southern Cross, a local paper, under the editorship of a gentleman well skilled in geological science. At the present period, when gold is reported to have been found in the district – in which, if the report do not turn out to be true at present, it will no doubt be one day found – the following chapter will be perused with great interest.

GEOLOGICAL SKETCHES OF THE PROVINCE OF NEW ULSTER.

Secondary Formations.

The secondary formations are commonly characterized by containing fossils of extinct species of shells, fishes, &c, and present no remains of land animals. They are, for the most part, oceanic deposits, having arisen from causes far more general than those which have produced the tertiary strata. We find in them very similar repetitions of sandy, clayey, and calcareous deposits to those of the tertiary series, but generally in a state of much greater induration, forming compact sandstones, shales, clay-slates, and limestones; and the unimportant lignites of the tertiary strata expand into the thick and valuable beds of coal

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which characterize that portion of the series termed the "coal-measures."

The various calcareous rocks form an important feature in secondary formations, and consist of limestones, including chalk and marble, the oolites, gypsum, &c.

Limestone, with its associated rocks, although one of the most abundant mineral substances in Europe, where it forms extensive mountainous chains and thick beds, is not an abundant rock in New Ulster, where, in fact, as in Australia, some of the secondary series of rocks appear to be entirely wanting.

Calcareous rocks occur in mass, in the estuary of Kawia, on the west coast of New Ulster, and can be examined on the left bank of the Awaroa, and on the south side of the harbour of Kawia. The limestone cliffs are corroded in various ways: chasms have been formed by the dripping water, and stalactites hang from their sides and roof. The nature of the fossils which are found in this formation, and which consist of great numbers of a large "ostrea," often a foot in length, and of the "terebratula," in an excellent state of preservation, would seem to place this formation in the tertiary series of rocks; they are such, however, as are found in formations of all ages. (Dieffenbach.)

In the Bay of Tauranga, a marly limestone horizontal strata appears on the sides of the hills: it breaks into slabs about an inch thick. To the northward, the hills present a perpendicular escarpment, and the limestone displays the interesting phenomenon of a dendritic dyke of whinstone. (Lydian stone, injected into the mass.) The limestone is altered where in contact with it, and inclines at an angle of about forty degrees: a few paces from this, the strata are again horizontal. (Ditto.) Again, we learn from the same writer, that about two miles from the south head of Wangaroa harbour, a beautiful red and variegated marble is found on the coast, of a close fine grain, and in sufficient quantity to become of importance for domestic architecture at some future period. This marble occurs in connection with chloritic and argillaceous slate, and seems to belong

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to the secondary or transition series, if we may judge from its mineral character, for it does not contain any fossils.

This marble belongs probably to the greywacke limestone formation, or as it is sometimes called "transition" limestone, forming a portion of the greywacke series, in which it often occurs in irregular beds and of various colours, as black, brown, white, and red, and frequently veined or variegated with these colours. The pure white or statuary marble belongs, however, to the primary formations of rocks, being nearly a pure carbonate of lime; its texture is compact and granular, and some varieties of the primary limestone are called "saccharoidal," from their resemblance to white sugar.

Common limestone of a loose texture, and of a dull and earthy fracture, occurs also at Wangarei, where it is found in a stratified deposit, alternating with sandstone, shells, &c. The calcareous beds are, however, very impure.

The deposits classed together under the name of the "oolitic" group, are of a very complicated character, the predominating feature consisting of a limestone formed by small spheroidal particles, varying from the size of a poppy-seed to that of a pea, and held together by a cement chiefly composed of calcareous matter. The series is subdivided into three portions, which have been named, from their relative situation, the upper, the middle, and the lower oolite, each of which has its peculiar characteristics.

The whole formation of the oolites rests upon the great argillaceous deposit, termed the "lias," which is itself subdivided into upper lias shale, marlstone, lower lias shale, and limestone.

Like most members of the oolitic series, the lias is remarkable for the number and variety of its fossils. It is evidently a marine deposit, and must have been produced, like the rest of the oolitic strata, by a slow and uninterrupted action favourable both to the existence and preservation of animal life, as would appear from the immense number of marine shells and fossil remains found abundantly in it. With the lowest stratum

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of the lias, this abundance ceases, and the "new red sandstone," which comes immediately below it, contains scarcely a vestige of animal or vegetable existence, thus proving the two different epochs of their formation.

With respect to this rock (new red sandstone), with its associated red marl, it may be observed that the districts formed by it are easily recognized by the prevailing redness of the soil, and the deep red tint of the substrata, wherever exposed to view. This rock is so named in order to distinguish it from a sandstone very similar in many respects, but belonging to a much more ancient geological period, and thence named the "old red sandstone."

In the new red sandstone formation, four subdivisions may generally be recognized. The upper portion of the mass usually consists of a reddish clay or marl, below which is a soft micaceous sandstone, frequently of a deep red colour, but occasionally of a whitish or yellowish tint. The sandstone is underlaid by thin calcareous beds of a conglomerate nature, the whole generally reposing on a coarse siliceous conglomerate, composed of the fragments of older rocks.

The stone commonly known by the name of Matakana stone, from the district of that name situated in the Gulf of Houraki, appears to belong to the new red sandstone formation. Although used as a building-stone, it is hardly compact enough to form a good and durable stone for building purposes, the sandstone being composed of siliceous grains not very firmly cemented together, and tinted by the peroxide of iron. It appears, however, to harden by exposure to the weather.

A better description of stone belonging to the same series is found at Mercury Bay: this stone is a freestone, which is cut readily when first taken out of the quarry, and subsequently becomes harder. It appears to be well adapted for building purposes, and for constructing piers, quays, and bridges.

The district of Matakana above mentioned, having recently been the scene of an experiment to ascertain the existence or non-existence of coal, of the existence of which, in that locality,

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many persons entertained a confident belief, it may not be out of place here to advert to it, and also to the circumstances and conditions under which coal is found in other countries.

It is well known that in Europe, in America, and other parts of the world, coal is almost everywhere accompanied by the same kind of rock, a knowledge of which is essential, wherever we would seek for this valuable mineral, in order to avoid attempts or experiments generally useless and always expensive. It is almost needless to observe, that coal is never found in rocks of the primary formations, nor is it found among those of the more recent or tertiary formations, such as incoherent beds of sand, gravel, white sandstone, &c. In some of these beds, it is true, seams of lignite are found; but this substance must not be confounded with coal, as has sometimes been the case, both in New Zealand and in other countries.

Many fruitless trials have been made for coal, in the black slate clay and lias rocks, by ignorant miners, who mistook those rocks for the slaty clay and shale which form a principal feature in the "coal measures." The bituminous shale and lignite found in the first-named rocks, bear, to the casual observer, some appearance of imperfect coal; and these deceptive appearances have occasioned expensive trials and waste of capital in localities where, as at Matakana, it would be evident to any one at all versed in geology, that there existed not the least probability of obtaining coal.

Among the rocks composing the coal measures of England, we generally find the following order of superposition: –

1. Micaceous and ferruginous sandstone, often very coarse grained.

2. Clay-slates and mica-slates, with impressions of fish and vegetables, generally belonging to the grasses and ferns.

3. Strata of marl, limestone, and indurated clay.

4. A kind of secondary argillaceous rock, containing fossilized branches, roots, and even whole trees.

5. Argillaceous iron-ore.

6. Beds of pebbles, in a ferruginous sand.

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The coal of this formation is found in strata alternating with strata of the rocks just mentioned, and which are indistinctly seen above and below the coal strata or seams: it appears that in general the contiguous rock both above and below the coal is slate, but that below the coal often differs from that which is above it; and what appears singular, it has been observed that the overlying slate is impregnated with bitumen, whilst the underlying slate contains none.

Of all the substances which may cover and conceal a bed of coal, the most common is a kind of indurated clay, very hard and tenacious, and more or less mixed with sand, gravel, and stones. This mixture is often almost as hard as a rock, and is formed of the debris of the neighbouring rocks, being sometimes from thirty to forty yards in thickness. It frequently contains a great quantity of pieces of coal, which is generally an indication of the existence of a bed of coal in the neighbourhood. Generally speaking, the strata of coal, as well as those of the accompanying rocks, crop out somewhere; but as the upper coal strata are commonly of trifling thickness, its outcroppings are not very easily recognized.

The varieties of coal are numerous, hut they may all be referred to two principal divisions. The first contains bitumen and carbon in various proportions, but the bitumen predominates; the second contains little or no bitumen, but is wholly composed of carbon and a little earthy matter. The first kind is called black or "foliated" coal, and often, from its locality, "Newcastle coal." This species of coal burns with considerable flame and smoke, is highly bituminous, and gives out a large quantity of gaseous matter whilst burning – being, in fact, carburetted hydrogen gas in an impure state. The second kind of coal is known by the name of "anthracite," or stone-coal. It is also frequently called Welsh coal, or Kilkenny coal, from the localities where it is most abundantly found in Wales and Ireland. This species of coal, unlike the former, burns almost without flame, and with very little smoke. It consists chiefly of carbon, some specimens containing as much as ninety-two per cent.

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The largest known coal-field in New Ulster is found in the valley of the Waikato, where a very large deposit exists; and, according to the statement of the Surveyor-General, who personally inspected this district in 1846, that officer gives it as his opinion that coal will ultimately be found to extend over one hundred square miles of the valley of the Waikato.

The following extract from a report by Mr. Ligar, published in the Government Gazette in 1847, shows the extent and importance of this valuable deposit: –

"I examined the two places where the coal crops out, and found the seam to be six feet thick, and of good quality. One of these places is within 300 yards of the Waikato, and the seam is there elevated 200 feet above the river. Judging from the other places where the coal is also found, and from the formation of the country, I have no doubt but that coal will ultimately be found to extend over one hundred square miles of the valley of the Waikato, north of Kaitotihe."

So large an extent of workable coal must unquestionably prove of the greatest value to the province, forming, as it will do, the great storehouse of fuel for future ages. It will, no doubt, appear superfluous to point out the vast utility and importance of the series of rocks comprised under the name of coal-measures, yet there are probably many persons who are scarcely aware of the full extent of the advantages which Great Britain has derived from her geological structure embracing such valuable and extensive deposits of this mineral. It has been observed by an able writer, speaking of the coal-measures of Great Britain: – "The manufacturing industry of this island, colossal as is the fabric which it has raised, rests principally on no other base than our fortunate position with regard to the rocks of this series: should our coal-mines ever be exhausted, it would melt away at once." – (Burr's Geology.)

The specimens from the Waikato District exhibit a straight, laminated, or fibrous fracture, and a compact shining surface. The colour is almost a perfect black; it is generally brittle, and when exposed to the action of fire burns without coking, and

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with little or no smoke or flame. These characteristics would, therefore, seem to mark this coal as belonging to the anthracite or stone-coal variety. Other specimens may, however, prove more bituminous; but those examined appear to consist chiefly of carbon – being, in fact, coal deprived of its volatile matter or bitumen, and converted into a species of coke by subterranean calcination. Coal is also found again at Mokau, on the banks of the river of that name, about thirty miles from its mouth, and is probably a continuation of the same bed or deposit of the Waikato coal-basin.

A knowledge of the general geological structure of New Zealand will, no doubt, one day, which it is to be hoped is not far distant, enable the geologists of this country to direct the search for coal in given rocks, and to advise the discontinuance of it in others, precisely as English geologists would advise the search for coal in the proper places, and tell those who seek for it in the numerous other situations where it has been sought, that they are only throwing away time, labour, and money.

This highly interesting subject cannot, perhaps, be better concluded than in the words of that eminent geologist and talented writer, the Rev. Dr. Buckland, who, in his Bridgwater Treatise on Geology, &c, has the following striking and beautiful passage: –

"Few persons are aware of the remote and wonderful events in the economy of our planet, and of the complicated applications of human industry and science which are involved in the production of coal that supplies with fuel the metropolis of England. The most early stage to which we can carry back its origin, was among the swamps and forests of the primeval earth, where it flourished in the form of gigantic Calamites, and stately Lepidodendra and Sigillariae. From their native bed, these plants were torn away by the storms and inundations of a hot and humid climate, and transported into some adjacent lake or estuary, or sea. Here they floated on the waters, until they sank saturated to the bottom, and being buried in the detritus of adjacent lands, become transferred to a new estate

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among the members of the mineral kingdom. A long interment followed, during which a course of chemical changes and new combinations of their vegetable elements have converted them to the mineral condition of coal.

"By the elevating force of subterranean fire, these beds of coals have been uplifted from beneath the waters to a new position in the hills and mountains, where they are accessible to the industry of man. From this fourth stage in its adventures, our coal has again been moved by the labours of the miner, assisted by the arts and sciences that have co-operated to produce the steam-engine and the safety-lamp. Returned once more to the light of day, and a second time committed to the waters, it has, by the aid of navigation, been conveyed to the scene of its next and most considerable change by fire; a change during which it becomes subservient to the most important wants and conveniences of man. In this seventh stage of its long, eventful history, it seems to the vulgar eye to undergo annihilation; its elements are indeed released from the mineral combinations they have maintained for ages, but their apparent destruction is only the commencement of new successions of change and activity. Set free from their long imprisonment, they return to their native atmosphere, from which they were absorbed, to take place in the primeval vegetation of the earth. To-morrow they may contribute to the substance of timber, in the trees of our existing forests; and having, for a while, resumed their place in the living vegetable kingdom, may, ere long, be applied a second time to the use and benefit of man. And when decay or fire shall once more consign them to the earth, or to the atmosphere, the same elements will enter on some further department of their perpetual ministration in the economy of the material world."

Tertiary and Recent Deposits.

The tertiary strata are characterized as an assemblage of stratified deposits, more or less consolidated, and consisting chiefly of beds of gravel, clay, incoherent sand, or friable sand-

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stone, in which land and fresh-water shells, drifted wood and lignite, with the remains of fishes and cetacea, are mingled in such a manner as to indicate their deposition in lakes and estuaries; and, in many cases, there are such alternations of marine and fluviatile deposits, as to show that the land, during the tertiary period, was elevated and submerged more than once.

The tertiary strata are also distinguished by the large number of shells of existing species found in them, in a fossil state; the total number of distinct species yet found in them in Europe amounting to upwards of 3,000.

The strata of the tertiary and upper secondary epochs afford evidence of the slow progress by which even these comparatively modern deposits have been elaborated, and furnish us with undoubted proofs of the long lapse of ages employed in bringing the earth into its present condition.

As the primary rocks exhibit no traces of fossil-plants, shells, or animals, it may thence be concluded that there was a time when no living beings existed on the earth; and from the evidences of succeeding formations, that, before the creation of man, the world was inhabited by at least three different generations of animals, which had been successively created and destroyed, or became extinct.

It is supposed, with reason, that the creation of vegetable bodies preceded the creation of the animals that were to devour them. In those early days, when the lofty pines, the stately palms, and the gigantic equisatesecae, waved in the primeval forests, the earth was inhabited only by reptiles of an immense magnitude; the megalosaurus being upwards of seventy feet in length, the ichthyosaurus, a creature combining the trunk of an ordinary quadruped with a neck like the body of a serpent, the head of a lizard, the teeth of a crocodile, and the paddles of a whale! and the pterodactyle, the most extraordinary of extinct animals, uniting the characters of a bird, a bat, a reptile, and a quadruped.

In the second period, the terrestrial mammalia appear to

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increase in number, and we find along with them numerous pachydermata, or animals with thick skins, and other genera of aquatic or amphibious animals which dwelt on the margin of lakes and rivers. These and other species, varying in size from the rhinoceros to the hog, were found by Cuvier, in the fresh water formations of Montmartre, near Paris.

In the third period lived the mammoth, mastodon, the hippopotamus, and those large sloths, the megalatherium, and the megalonix, the giants of the natural world, and the grandest and the last specimens of that extraordinary antediluvian population, over which man never swayed his sceptre.

The lion and the tiger are supposed to he the successors of the creatures last mentioned. Up to this stage, no traces of man or of his labours on earth can be detected, and this gives the remarkable result that the periods above named were succeeded by a fourth, in which the Almighty placed man upon earth, and created as his subjects and servants those races of living beings who now occupy the surface of our globe, or who inhabit the depths of our oceans.

Although hitherto no organic remains of extinct species of mammalia, or of reptiles, have been discovered, either in the Islands of New Zealand or in the continent of Australia, it by no means follows that such exuviae of former creations may not exist and be brought to light. The researches of Australian geologists lead to the inference that both New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land were above the ocean during the whole period in which the greater part of Europe was yet under water, and that they did not descend until the whole enormous mass of the European secondaries, from the new red sandstone to the chalk, and part of the tertiaries, had been deposited, after which some portion descended, and received partial accumulations of marine detritus, since which period those countries have risen again to a higher level. These phenomena give, therefore, enormous antiquity to the singular classes of indigenous animals and plants inhabiting Australia. In New Ulster, tertiary strata are found covering an exten-

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sive area in the central parts of the province, but little is as yet known of the fossils found in them, and no attempt has been made either to arrange or classify them. In the neighbourhood of Auckland, which occupies nearly the centre of a tertiary basin, somewhat similar to the London and Paris basins, the cliffs forming the shores of the river Waitemata, are composed of a soft, friable sandstone, in horizontal strata, alternating with strata of indurated clay and ironstone, and containing in some places, the limbs and branches of trees in a semi-carbonized state, imbedded in the clay; at other places, the cliffs consist of a remarkable conglomerate, or peperino, in layers, with seams of a substance resembling elite.

Opposite the island of Waiheki, the coast is comparatively low, and the cliffs there also consist of a soft white sandstone in horizontal strata. This formation extends in an easterly direction nearly to the Gulf of Houraki, and westerly towards Kaipara. To the north, the tertiary strata extends to Mahurangi.

With respect to the original formation of a large portion of the primary, secondary, and tertiary strata of New Ulster, the following would appear to have been the process: – A series of submarine volcanic movements first gave rise to numerous small islets and rocks, similar to those which may now be seen on many parts of the coast. These islets and rocks would consist partly of those crystalline mineral masses to which it has been usual to assign the name of primary, and partly of the subjacent strata which constituted the original bed of the ocean. Subsequent elevatory movements would then form larger islands by the junction and uniting of those first raised; and at length by the continued rising of different parts of the bed of the ocean, a number of basins would be formed, each having its system of rivers together with disconnected gulfs, which would receive the drainage of those basins.

Some of the groups of islands which had first arisen, would, in the course of time, become the principal mountain ranges of the island; for, as in Chili, a single earthquake has raised per-

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manently the coast for 100 miles in length, to the average height of three feet; so, a repetition of 1,000 shocks of equal violence would produce a mountain chain 100 miles in length, and 3,000 feet in height.

Finally, volcanic eruptions would take place in the centre of these tertiary basins, and we should then have the general character and appearances presented to us in many parts of New Ulster where are to be seen numerous conical hills and craters of eruption, piercing through strata of argillaceous deposits and sandstone of the tertiary epochs.

With regard to the fluviatile and marine deposits, now in progress, forming deltas, islands, and shoal-banks, which modern deposits are usually included under the general name of "alluvium," these are to be found at the mouths of most of the rivers and estuaries of New Ulster, as at Hokianga, Kaipara, and Manukau, where they form bars and banks of sand, extending in some places several miles seaward, and obstructing the navigation of those rivers, which would otherwise possess great commercial advantages. Of this class also are the deposits now forming at the head of most of the estuaries in the province, some of which are rapidly filling up with these sedimentary deposits.

The estuary of the Thames is an instance of this process; an extensive bank of mud and silt stretches off the mouth of the rivers Thames and Piako, and is constantly receiving fresh accessions of sedimentary matter. The velocity of the tide is accelerated in its advance up this estuary, by the narrower bounds into which a large body of water is forced to flow; and during the ebb-tide, the sediment held in suspension in the waters of the two rivers, is carried to such a distance from their mouths that very little of it returns up the rivers with the next tide: thus a large portion is deposited at the head of the estuary, in still water, and local accumulations form shoal-banks at the mouths of the rivers. A portion of this sediment is also conveyed by currents, and widely diffused over different parts of the estuary, and this slowly standing, covers its

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bottom with a mass of finely comminuted silty matter, unmixed with sand or gravel.

The rich and extensive alluvial plain comprised in the valley of the Thames, has unquestionably been formed in this manner. The breadth of this alluvial flat varies from two to three miles by a length of nearly sixty miles; at its head, however, the breadth is considerably reduced. This plain, the greater portion of which is not elevated more than six feet above the level of high water, is bounded by hills or cliffs, varying from 300 to 500 feet in height on the west, and by the Thames on the eastern side, the river Piako flowing through the same alluvial tract, and nearly parallel with the Thames. The western hills or bluffs point out the former boundaries of the estuary, whose waters, undoubtedly, at a former period, extended to a considerably further distance inland, and that, in fact, the whole of the lower portion of the valley of the Thames has been silted up within a comparatively recent period of time,

Metalliferous Deposits, Mineral Veins, &c.

An acquaintance with the general results collected and classified by geology, must be our first guide in the investigation of the metalliferous and mineral deposits. This enables the observer to judge whether any particular district should, from the nature and arrangement of its rocks, be susceptible of including within it any workable metalliferous deposits. It indicates also, to a certain extent, what mineral substances may probably be met with, and in what particular locality such substances will probably be found.

Positive indications of the presence of metallic ores, are some of them proximate, and others remote: – the proximate, are an efflorescence, so to speak, of the subjacent metallic masses, particularly of copper, which is frequently found forming a green metallic coating on the surface of certain rocks. The remote indications consist in the geological age and nature of

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the rocks, the frequent occurrence of fragments of particular ores, or the neighbourhood of some known locality of an ore; and if in granite, or in argillaceous schistus, a vein of white stone or spar is found running in a direction from east to west, there is much probability, that in some part of its depth, it may afford some useful metal. And further, if veins of spar or quartz occur in certain rooks, such veins being partly hollow and partly filled with a yellowish ferruginous substance, which in Cornwall is termed "gossan," there is every probability that such veins will be productive, and the larger the quantity of gossan found in such veins, the better is the indication usually considered.

Negative indications are derived from that peculiar geological constitution which, from experience, or general principles, excludes certain metallic or mineral substances. Thus, the metals, whether native or mineralized in the state of ore, seldom or never occur in rocks of tertiary formation, such as soft white sandstone, or soft argillaceous schist, although they may be looked for in hard schist, and in compact limestone of the secondary epoch. This may also be sought after with the greater chance of success in gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, &c, than in serpentine, syenite, bituminous slate or basalt; and as a general rule, it may be said that volcanic territories never afford any metallic ores worth the working. It is, however, very common that granite includes within it workable veins of copper, silver, and lead, and tin is almost exclusively worked in the interior of granitic rocks. Respecting this rock, however, it is not generally considered by miners a favourable rock for copper, except it be in connection with slate; for although in certain Cornish mines, copper has been plentifully obtained in granite, it has always been at no considerable distance from its junction with the clay-slate. Rich veins of lead, sometimes argentiferous, have at times been found in rocks of compact limestone; and sulphate of barytes, and fluor-spar, are pretty certain indications of metalliferous deposits.

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It is well known that there is often much connection between given rocks in particular districts, and the productive mines in them; some rocks being considered more "kindly," as the Cornish miners term it, than others. The Consolidated Mines, near to Redruth, in Cornwall, offer an excellent illustration of the geological position of one of the most productive mines in that county, which are situated at or near to the junction of the granite and the clay-slate. At the western extremity of these mines, the mass of granite which forms the prominent hill of Carn Marth, dips below the surface at an angle of about 30 degrees, and is overlaid by the metalliferous clay-slate or "killas," which is itself traversed by the porphyritic rock called "elvan." All these rocks are intersected by mineral veins or lodes, which are highly productive of copper and tin, but chiefly of the former. The lodes have a direction nearly east and west, with a dip or underlie to the north, and are intersected at right angles in several places by barren veins, locally termed "cross-courses," chiefly filled with quartz, and clayey matter. The chief produce is the sulphuret of copper, called yellow copper ore, from which the great bulk of that metal is, in most parts of the world, obtained.

The metalliferous veins of Cornwall generally run in an east and west direction, although this is not invariably the case. Their dip or underlie is usually to the north. Other veins that rarely contain any metallic substances, frequently cross the metalliferous veins at right angles, or very nearly so, and are thence called "cross-courses." Their direction is commonly north and south, or within a few points, and their width varies from two feet to ten feet; but whatever may be their width, they always divide tin or copper veins, and frequently alter their course, or, in the language of the miners, "heave them out." These north and south veins are usually filled with quartz, or a whitish clayey substance, or a hard porphyritic rock; in the latter case, it is called an "elvan-course." The length of no one vein in Cornwall has as yet been satisfactorily proved; some of them have been traced for four, five, and even

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six and seven miles, and no instance has occurred in which the bottom of a vein has been seen.

The metalliferous veins of New Ulster appear to follow nearly the same laws which regulate their types in England, and to range generally in an east and west direction, although this direction may not be maintained uniformly throughout, being subject apparently to frequent deviations from this course, which can therefore only be termed their general direction. The rocks in which these veins occur, have frequently much resemblance to the rocks which are the enclosing stratum of copper and other veins in Cornwall and elsewhere. Thus in the vicinity of Cape Colville, we find most, if not all the rocks which are productive of copper and other metals in Cornwall. For instance, we find there the primary clay-slate, or "killas," reposing on a mass of granite at an angle of from 30 to 40 degrees, and we find cross-courses of the porphyritic rock called "elvan" traversing the clay-slate, we also find veins of quartz, and lastly, we find, at several places, "lodes" or veins which, on being examined, prove to be metalliferous, and enclose the ores of copper, lead, and iron.

In 1845, whilst exploring this part of the coast, the writer discovered several well-defined lodes in the clay-slate, at no considerable distance from its junction with the granite, these lodes having a general direction of nearly east and west. Positive indications of the existence of copper at this locality are seen by the metallic efflorescence covering some of the adjacent rocks, and by the presence of the yellow and gray sulphurets of copper lining the sides or walls of the lodes. It seems probable that other metals exist in the neighbourhood; and from the limited and partial examination of the district by the writer, it may be concluded that the range extending from Cape Colville to the mouth of the river Thames, is at many points highly metalliferous, and will no doubt at some future day prove the great mining district of New Ulster.

The only metalliferous veins which have hitherto been opened and worked in the province occur at the Great Barrier

METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS.

Island, and at the island of Kawau; in the former, the veins occur at a point near the northern extremity of the island in a hard granitic or porphyritic rock; and the ore, consisting chiefly of the yellow sulphuret of copper, is intermixed with the gangue or matrix in small veins or threads. These veinstones also contain other minerals, and the ore appears to become richer in proportion to the depth at which it is worked. Hitherto, however, the workings have not been extended to a great distance; but there appears every probability, that, as the mine becomes better opened out, and the sinking of a main shaft, with proper adits, proceeded with, the returns of ore will become of a more remunerative description; some of the prepared samples of this mine having already commanded a high price in the English market. The ore from the Kawau copper-mine is of a different description from that found at the Great Barrier, the geological formation of this island being of a very different character. At the Kawau, the ore is much impregnated with sulphur, containing probably on an average not less than thirty per cent, of this mineral. This circumstance has rendered expedient the erection of furnaces for the purpose of roasting or calcining the ore, which by this means is deprived of its sulphur, and reduced to a copper regulus of from twenty to twenty-five per cent. The advantage of this partial smelting on the spot is obvious, as it is evident that there must be in every mine a large proportion of the poorer description of ore, which will not pay to export to England or elsewhere, but which, by a cheap and expeditious process of reducing to a regulus on the spot, can thus be rendered a profitable article of export.

The writer will now conclude these desultory remarks on the geology of the province, by expressing a hope that the development of the mineral resources of the province may, by inviting the application of capital, create a permanent article of export, now much wanted, and thus contribute to place the colony on a basis of solid commercial prosperity.

LOCALITIES OF MINERALS.

MINERALS AND METALS.

The following list, which no doubt will receive numerous and important additions, at a future, and not distant period, comprises most of the useful minerals and metals, occurring in the province of New Ulster.

Localities.

Coal. – Found on the banks of the River Waikato, at a place called Kaito-tihe, between the Church Mission Station Tihoro, and the confluence of the Rivers Waipa and Waikato.

Found also in the River Mokau, on the banks of the river, about thirty miles from its mouth.

Also near the North Cape, at Parengarenga.

The specimens from the Waikato do not appear to contain much bitumen, being more difficultly inflammable than the ordinary bituminous coal. This, however, may be partly owing to the specimens being taken near the surface. When once ignited, however, they burn with a strong and durable heat, and leave a solid cinder. This coal will no doubt prove a valuable fuel for lime-kilns, malt-kilns, iron-foundries, and the like, as it does not appear to contain much sulphur. It would no doubt also prove a good coking-coal, and with the judicious application of a current of air, and in a properly-constructed furnace, would no doubt prove a good steam coal.

Copper. – Found at the Great Barrier Island, at its northern and southern extremities.

Found also on the coast, near to Cape Colville, in the primary range extending thence to the mouth of the river Thames.

Also at the Island of Kawau, on the west side.

Also on the coast near to Mongonui: Doubtless Bay.

The ore mostly found at these different localities, is the yellow copper pyrites, or yellow copper ore, from which the great bulk of this metal is, in most parts of the world, extracted. Certain varieties exhibit beautiful iridescent colours, being the "peacock" copper-ore. At the Kawau, the ore

LOCALITIES OF MINERALS.

is much impregnated with sulphur; it also contains a large proportion of iron. Some fine samples of the black oxide of copper have been obtained from this mine, and small quantities of native copper.

Gold. – A full account of the recent discovery of gold in the province of New Ulster will be found in the last chapter of this work.

Iron. – Found abundantly in the form of pyrites, or sulphuret of iron, in many localities, and in rocks of all ages. In the form of iron sand (titanitic iron? fer magnetique sabloneux), it is found at the mouths of most of the rivers on the west coast, particularly at Taranaki. This variety furnishes generally the best of bar-iron and steel. The Swedish iron is mostly extracted from iron-sand.

Lead. – Found on the coast in veins in the mountainous range extending from Cape Colville to the mouth of the Thames, in the form of galena, or sulphuret of lead. It seems highly probable that some specimens from this locality are argentiferous; but whether the silver exists in sufficient quantity to repay the cost of extraction, is doubtful.

Manganese. – Found abundantly at the Island of Waiheke, in the form of the oxide, or black manganese ore; also a variety (carbonate of manganese) of a red colour; and a silicate of manganese, or manganese-spar. Earthy manganese, or black "wad," considered a hydrate of manganese, is also a common mineral.

Limestone. – Found at Kawhia, on the south side of the harbour, and on the left bank of the Awaroa, where it occurs in cliffs and masses; and in the form of stalactitic carbonate of lime. Found also in the Bay of Tauranga, in horizontal strata, on the side of the hills, in slabs about an inch thick. Found also at Wangarei, in beds of an impure description. Also, about two miles from Wangaroa harbour, a carbonate of lime, or marble is found, of a red and variegated colour, in connection with chloritic and argillaceous slate. This marble is stated by Dieffenbach to be of a fine close grain, and to exist in

LOCALITIES OF MINERALS.

sufficient quantity to become of importance for domestic architecture at some future period.

Slate. – Found in one of the upper tributaries of the Hokianga estuary, the Mangamuka, where there is said to be an extensive quarry of a lightish blue colour. It projects into the river, presenting a rugged surface, from exposure to the weather. It readily splits up into large thin slates or slabs; the strata dip downwards at an angle perhaps of 65 degrees, to the north, and exhibit every appearance of a fine description of slate.

Clays. – Of various kinds, suitable for bricks, tiles, and pottery-ware, are found extensively disseminated in the tertiary strata of the province. Of these some are infusible, and others fusible; the infusible clays being Aluminite, Colyrite, Caolin, Cimolite, Plastic-clay, and Lithomarge; and the fusible being Fuller's-Eartb, Figuline, adhesive or slaty clay, and some others.

Sulphur. – This mineral substance is found at White Island, in mass intermixed with sand, &c, being the produce of the Solfatara. It requires, however, to be purified, either by melting or by sublimation, before being applicable to commercial or industrial purposes. The means are here afforded for the manufacture in the province of a cheap sulphuric acid, an article of great use in the arts, and which has hitherto been a very expensive article of import, owing to the danger to be apprehended from it, and consequent dislike of shipowners to allow it to form part of their cargo. The manufacture of coarse sulphuric acid is very simple, and the apparatus inexpensive.

Building-Stones. – Granite is found in large masses near Cape Colville, and at the Barrier Island, of different colours and degrees of fineness. Freestone of good quality – fit for constructing bridges, piers, &c – is found at Mercury Bay, adjacent to the anchorage. A calcareo-siliceous sandstone is also found at Matakana: this stone is soft when first quarried, but becomes harder by exposure to the weather.

CHAPTER VII. WELLINGTON.

WELLINGTON.

CHAPTER VII.

WELLINGTON.

Harbour of Port Nicholson – Natural scenery – Petoni – Rural districts – Population – Stock – Manufactures – Schools and churches – Statistics – Imports and exports – Whale fishing – Description of Wellington – Extract from a recent letter – Overland journey from Auckland to Port Nicholson – Kupanga – Mount Edgecumbe – Mineral Springs of Rotorua – Tongariro,

IN the following chapters, giving an account of the various settlements, it is not the writer's intention to touch at all upon their history, political or otherwise. His object is to convey practical information, such as will be of use to the emigrant, on his arrival in the colony, and such as may form a guide in his choice of locality. Those who wish for information us to the history of the formation of the different settlements will find such in several volumes already published.

We have said nothing of the voyage, though, notwithstanding its assumable monotony, it possesses many and varied attractions. It is more to our purpose to devote as much space as possible to more profitable information. We will therefore suppose the voyage to be nearly over, and that the emigrant is within sight of Mount Egmont, the snow-capped cone of which, like a small cloud resting on the surface of the sea, rises above the distant horizon, though as yet no other land is visible. The Taranaki coast is, however, soon made, and shortly afterwards, the high, broken ridges of the Middle Island, backed by mountains covered with perpetual snow, heave in sight. As the coast of the Middle Island is approached more nearly, the hills

THE HARBOUR.

are seen to be clothed to the summits with the most luxuriant forests. Stephen's Island, D'Urville's Island, the Admiralty-Islands, are rapidly passed. Kapiti or Entry Island, nearly opposite to the entrance into Queen Charlotte's Sound, is soon reached. This island was one of the strongholds of the cannibal Rauperaha, and at bo great distance from it, opposite to the entrance of Porirua harbour, is Mana, the former fortress of the no less distinguished monster Rangihaiata. These passed, Cape Terawiti juts into the strait, this being the narrowest point, the distance to the nearest land in the Middle Island being not more than twenty miles. On rounding Cape Terawiti, the emigrant finds himself in a large semicircular bay, at the north-east portion of which is the entrance to the harbour of Port Nicholson. This is not, however, at first distinguished; being shut in by the high land at the heads. The inner harbour may be distinctly seen from the ship's foreyard, over a neck of low land forming Lyall's Bay, before the entrance is distinctly made, and commanders of vessels should be careful to distinguish Lyall's Bay from the true entrance, before they bear up for the harbour.

The entrance to the harbour is a mile in width, between a reef of pyramidal rocks, known as Barrett's Reef, and the eastern shore. Ships may approach quite close to either. There is no danger, either hidden or apparent, in the way; but a clear unbroken channel extends right up to the anchorage. On entering the heads the harbour has a fine appearance. A vast lake, about nine miles in length by five in breadth, with two picturesque islands rising within it, Somes' and Ward's islands, perfectly landlocked, and having the hills clothed with forest from the water's edge to their summits, form a scene rarely surpassed in picturesque beauty, and this is enhanced by the long vista extending up the valley of the Hutt, and closed by the elegant forms of the Tararua mountains, the snowy peaks of which rise in delicate outline against the clear blue sky.

As the ship emerges from "the heads," two deep bays are

NATURAL SCENERY.

seen within the harbour. One of these is Evans's Bay, which has not as yet been appropriated to nautical purposes, from the steepness of its shores. The other is Lambton Harbour, the port of Wellington, the houses in which lie in tiers around and above the margin of the bay. Every one is struck, and the more so after a long sea voyage, with the appearance of the incipient town. Many of the houses, whether of brick or of wood, are very tastefully built, and are almost invariably kept nicely painted. Every house in the town is distinctly seen, and the effect of these, backed by the rich green of the native forests, is rich beyond conception.

Nor does the town or vicinity belie the expectations formed of it. Mr. Angas, a writer who has an artist's eye for natural beauty, thus describes it: – "Nothing can exceed the beauty of the scenery, when viewed from the heights at the back of the town; the harbour looks like a large blue lake embosomed deep in hills and rocky precipices, the islands in its centre glistening in the sunshine. To the northward, the valley of the Hutt stretches up towards the snowy range of Tararua, whose white peaks stand out towards the azure sky; and a beach of fine white sand meets the water's edge, the scattered residences of the Europeans, intermingled with the pahs and villages of the natives, adding life to the scence. The green and umbrageous forest displaying foliage equal in magnificence and luxuriance to that of the tropics, forms a leafy canopy, from beneath which it is delightful to look down upon so glorious a landscape." The Tararua mountains, before alluded to, form a prominent object in sailing down Cook's Strait. They appear to the greatest advantage near Kapiti. The range extends towards the centre of the North Island, and is connected by the Rua Wahine range with the group of the Rua-Pohu and Tongariro in the Taupo district.

At the distance of about two miles from Wellington is Kai-warra-warra, a picturesque glen, leading to a fine agricultural table-land, which stretches in the direction of Porirua. There are few natives here, but the place is now occupied with Euro-

PETONI.

pean residences, mills, and a ship-building establishment, at which vessels of the largest size have been repaired. A body of Highlanders, who emigrated with Mr. M'Donald, is for the most part located in this vicinity.

Midway between the latter settlement and Petoni is Nga Hauranga, a small native settlement. This is situated on the banks of a stream at the entrance to a very pretty glen, the sides of the hills forming which are almost tropical in their character, from the abundance of the ti, or dragon trees, with which they are covered. The native clearings for agricultural purposes are somewhat extensive here. Nga Hauranga was the residence of the late chief Wari-Pori; a man of turbulent character, but highly esteemed by the natives for his accomplishments in their system of warlike strategy. His tomb forms a prominent, and not unpicturesque feature in the little village, the inhabitants of which have considerably improved in character and habits since the death of their chief, who by no means set a good example to his people.

At the northern extremity of the harbour, moving onwards from the latter settlement, is Petoni, a native settlement at the entrance to the valley of the Hutt. The natives here are united under the fine old chief E-Puni, a most estimable man, and a great favourite with all classes, native and European. E-Puni is the recognized head of the scattered tribes about Port Nicholson, the remnants of a once numerous and powerful people, who have been, for the most part, destroyed by Te Whero-Whero, the warlike and unscrupulous chief of Waikato, in the interior of the island.

Petoni is also a considerable agricultural settlement of Europeans, and was the site of the first town established in Port Nicholson on the arrival of the settlers in 1839. This town was called "Britannia," but, on the removal of the settlement to the opposite end of the harbour, where it ought to have been placed at first, the name was abandoned with the locality, and the native name Petoni is still retained.

The valley of the Hutt extends from the harbour of Port

RURAL DISTRICTS.

Nicholson to the Tararua mountains, a distance of about fifty-miles. The land stretching on both sides of the river is of extraordinary fertility, arising from the periodical overflowings of the river, and the rich deposit left on its retirement to its natural bed. This rise of the waters of the river was the cause of the removal of the principal town of the settlement to its present site. Not having been foreseen, this was the cause of serious annoyance to the first settlers, as far as the location of the town was concerned. In an agricultural point of view, this is of the highest importance to the agriculturist, and happy is he who has been lucky enough to obtain a section within the reach of the waters of the river, whether for flooding or irrigation.

Of the rural districts bordering upon the town little need be said. They lie for the most part between Wellington and Porirua, those scattered around the shores of the latter harbour being the most fertile. The remainder of the sections in the immediate vicinity of Wellington consist of flat table lands, through which never-failing streams run in every direction towards the coast. Many of the sections in this district occupy the valleys at the foot of hills which have not been included in the lands given out, and which are therefore waste. Such sections are considered valuable from the extent of sheep and cattle runs which they thus afford. But it is probable that they will not continue to lie waste. Much as has been said about the hills of Wellington, there are few which, when cleared, are not cultivatable to the summits; the land there, as in the case of the table-lands alluded to, being of the finest quality, whilst the valleys, filled with the debris of the hills, are fertility itself. It would have been folly, however, to have given hill land as sections, whilst there was plenty of flat land for the purpose.

The amount of available land in immediate connection with Wellington is limited, not amounting to more than 30,000 or 40,000 acres. At the distance of forty miles north-east is the fine valley of the Wairarapa, containing about 300,000 acres of

POPULATION.

excellent land fitted for both pasturage and agriculture. At about the same distance west of Wellington commences an extensive country at Waikanai, gradually widening to Wanganui, 120 miles from Wellington, and presenting an extent of perfectly level land estimated at upwards of a million acres, the greater portion of which is excellent arable land, and nearly the whole is covered with abundant pasture. This district is now being connected with Wellington by the military road, already available the whole way for horses, and for two-thirds of the way, forming a good carriage road.

The Wairau plains, also, on the other side of Cook's Strait, though nominally connected with Nelson, are in reality an appendage of Wellington, being much more accessible from the latter port, to which the settlers of Wairau already resort for a market.

The best idea which can be formed of this, the first settlement of the colony, must be derived from the present condition of the place, the reader bearing in mind that only ten years have elapsed since its formation, or rather eight years, for the Government returns have only been brought down to 1848.

We will retain the following account of the condition of Wellington in 1848, because it is more comprehensive than anything we have since seen, and also because it will form a standard of comparison as to the progress of the settlement since that period, as subsequently given.

The amount of population in Wellington and the places adjacent, in 1848, amounted to 6,338, including the military; of these, 2,401 were females. Twenty-six per cent, of this number were born in New Zealand, the remainder being emigrants from the mother country and the colonies, a few foreigners alone excepted.

It will be seen that the female population fall short of the male population, though the disproportion between the sexes is by no means so great as in Australia. The excess is greatest amongst adults between twenty-one and forty-five years of age; that is, in the marriageable period of life. According to the

STOCK.

latest returns, the number of females born in the colony is considerably greater than that of the males.

The number of persons following specific callings at the above period was 1,501, exclusive of female domestic servants; and of these thirty-four per cent, were engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Of the whole number of mechanics and craftsmen in the provinces, no less than fifty-four per cent, were carpenters, joiners, splitters of wood, or sawyers; so that, in numerous other handicraft trades, there must be a considerable opening for emigrants from the mother country.

The total quantity of land in cultivation in 1848 was 2,178 acres, the general occupation being the breeding of stock, for which no cultivation is necessary, the natural pastures being inexhaustible. In consequence of the ready market for cattle, and the high price of labour, a comparative neglect of rendering land arable was to be expected; but now that emigrants are rapidly flocking into the colony, as well from New South Wales as from the mother country, the cultivation of the soil will rapidly extend – and the more so, as animal food has been brought down to a price which will render the cultivation of the land equally profitable.

The quantity of stock in Wellington in 1848 was about 50,000 head of all kinds, pigs alone amounting to 7,500: of these, upwards of 5,000 were the property of the natives, who pursue this lucrative pursuit with energy. The importation of stock since 1848 has been very extensive, numerous families from New South Wales having emigrated to New Zealand with their stock; the Sydney merchants also having engaged in the New Zealand stock trade to a large extent. The number of horses in the town and its vicinity was, at the above period, 672; or about one horse to every ten persons.

The Wellington settlers, from the first, were ardent followers of the whale fishery, carried on chiefly on the coasts of the northern and middle island by means of boats – a method technically called "bay-whaling," these animals frequenting the coasts in great numbers during the breeding season. The large

MANUFACTURES.

remuneration attached to agricultural pursuits has, however, had the effect of considerably diminishing the number of boats and men employed in the fishery. In 1843, the whaling establishments connected with Wellington alone, employed ninety-one boats and 768 men, the produce being upwards of 1,300 tuns of oil, and sixty-five tons of whalebone, producing a total value of 32,680l. This produce was chiefly sent home by way of Sydney, owing to the want of regular shipping communication with England. The amount of whaling produce in 1848 was only 500 tuns, of oil, and twenty tons of whalebone; but whether the season was, as is sometimes the case, a failure, or whether the men had been drawn away to agricultural pursuits, does not appear from any returns.

The number of manufactories already established in the province is as follows: – Six breweries, two brick-yards, one candle-manufactory, two stocking-looms, six cooperages, one flax-mill, four rope-walks, two sacking-looms, seven flour-mills (two of which are worked by steam), seven ship and boat-yards, four tanneries, and nine timber saw-mills.

The total number of vessels owned in Wellington is seventy-six, the whole of which, with the exception of two, have been built in the colony. Of these, seven are the property of natives, and are either sailed by the natives, or by Europeans acting under their orders.

The total number of buildings in Wellington and its vicinity was, in 1848, 922, exclusive of native habitations. Many of these are substantial erections of stone and brick; but the majority are of wood, this being a favourite material for houses, notwithstanding the facilities which now exist for the erection of more durable fabrics.

The exports from Wellington of indigenous produce or manufacture comprise the following articles: – Casks for the whale fishery, barks and dyes, grain (exported in large quantities to Sydney), flax and hemp manufactured and unmanufactured, furniture, hops, leather, metals and minerals, oil, provisions salted and cured, ambergris, timber, tallow, whale-

SCHOOLS AND CHURCHES.

bone, and wool. The value of the exports for the three years ending 1848 was 84,673l.

The value of produce imported coastwise in 1848 was 55,000l., a very large portion of which was raised by natives. The tonnage employed was 6,044; but this does not comprise the whole of the shipping belonging to the port, as many vessels are engaged in the Hobart Town and Australian trade.

The amount of customs duties received at Wellington in the year 1848 was 11,O2Ol., and this amount has been considerably increased, so that the revenue of the colony is now amply sufficient for all reasonable expenditure on the part of the Government.

The above enumeration of the industrial condition of Wellington has been compiled from the returns of the Government, those in the preceding editions of this book having chiefly been derived from private, yet reliable resources. Any discrepancies which may appear, will therefore be referred to their true causes.

We will next advert to the moral condition of Wellington; and, first, of its educational provisions. There are 11 schools, attended by 352 scholars, besides Sunday schools, connected with Scotch Presbyterians, Wesleyans, Roman Catholics, Independents, Primitive Methodists, German Lutherans, and Non-Sectarians. There are nine of these schools, educating 600 children. The numbers and condition of these schools, many of which are of a superior order, is the best evidence that no uneducated person of the rising generation will be found in the colony; – a consolation of no ordinary description to the well-disposed emigrant.

Nor have the religious wants of the settlement been less amply provided for. There are in Wellington and its vicinity five churches, containing 860 sittings, and attended by 660 persons. One place of worship belonging to the Church of Scotland, attended by 150 persons. Five Wesleyan Chapels, attended by 422 persons. One Roman Catholic Chapel, attended by 180 persons, and three other chapels, belonging to various sects, giving accommodation to 330 persons.

IMMIGRANTS.

The Union Bank of Australia has a branch in Wellington. There is also a savings bank, in a highly flourishing condition. An exchange, or rather public reading-room, and a mechanics' institute are prominent and highly useful institutions, as is also the Horticultural Society, formed for the purpose of exhibiting the vegetable productions of the colony, and for the distribution of European and other seeds amongst its members. There is abundance of excellent hotels, taverns, and private lodging-houses, at which the newly-arrived emigrant may live well and economically, till he have made up his mind as to his future proceedings.

We now append more recent statistics, which the reader can, if he choose, compare with the preceding. They will be sufficient for all practical purposes, as the object of the emigrant is rather to know how far the colony will suit his purpose, than to become versed in its statistics.

The number of immigrants into the Wellington settlement in the first quarter of 1852 was 271, chiefly from Great Britain, but since that period emigration to New Zealand has given way to the mania for the Australian gold diggings. In the same quarter the emigration to Australia from the port of Wellington was 121, and this has been going on at a similar rate ever since. New Zealand must necessarily experience a temporary embarrassment from this cause, and much inconvenience from the want of labour will be felt. English emigrants would save themselves much anxiety, if not absolute wretchedness, if they would look a little forward, and emigrate to those countries which would stand most in need of their labour on arrival. The value of labour in New Zealand, by the time an emigrant sailing from England in the present spring would arrive there, will be very high, and his comforts will be far superior to any which even the enormous rates of wages in the gold colonies can procure. It is small comfort to him that he can get 5l. for a week's labour, when he has to pay six shillings for his quartern loaf, and for everything else in like proportion. The question with every sensible labourer should be – not how much

STATISTICS.

can I get per week? – but how much can I put by at the week's end? In the gold colonies, from the high prices of the necessaries of life, he would find it difficult to lay by one penny, unless engaged in gold digging; and the most recent accounts from the Victoria gold fields assure us that ere long thousands and even tens of thousands will be glad to labour for food and shelter, so indiscriminate has been the rush of the most incompetent persons to the diggings. And emigrants who have nothing to depend upon but their labour in the gold colonies, must recollect that escape from them is impossible; the rates of passage to other colonies being on the same scale of extravagance, and that far beyond their means.

The New Zealand government is so dilatory in preparing statistical accounts of the condition of the colony, that it is difficult to get at its statistics to a late date, i. e. in anything like a state of completeness. The following Table gives a complete account of the colony, generally, to the end of 1850: –

Localities.
Area
in Crop
Horses
Horned
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
European
Population
Males.
European
Population
Females.
Totals

Auckland
8,082
725
6,803
3,281
245
4,604
3,697
8,301

Wellington
4,436
809
8,068
42,652
1,299
3,025
2,454
5,478

Nelson
4,242
441
5,052
70,960
5,337
2,475
1,872
4,047

New Plymouth.
3,217
57
1,147
1,934
69
783
629
1,412

Bay of Islands
850
166
1,700
2,330
600
214
186
400

Manganui
381
78
1,000
420
60
176
83
259

Akaroa
145
19
614
1,630
389
175
120
295

Petre
148
95
2,839
6,248
125
276
156
432

Otago
510
298
1,725
19,751
130
821
661
1,482'

Canterbury
...
34
739
10,900
50
..
..
2,500

TOTALS
22,011
2,722
28,687
160,106
11,404
12,470
9,938
24,407

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS.

The imports and exports for the years 1848 and 1850 are thus stated: –

| Imports | Imports | Exports | Exports
Provinces. | 1848. | 1850. | 1848. | 1850.
New Ulster | £124,434... | 108,793... | 21,339 | 68,023
New Munster | 100,410 | 131,410 | 22,876 | 47,391
Totals | £233,844 | 240,203 | 44,215 | 115,414

During the year 1851, for which the returns have not yet been published, the exports, customs revenue, stock, and population, have all rapidly increased, as also the civil expenditure of the colony.

The local papers, however, have supplied others of a subsequent date; and from these we take the annexed particulars. The following will give an idea of the extent of imports and exports for the quarter ending June 30, 1852: –

Auckland imports | £8,852 10 0
Wellington do. | 7,810 12 0
Balance in favour of Auckland | £1,041 18 0
Wellington exports | £26,436 15 0
Auckland do. | 14,234 0 0
Balance in favour of Wellington | 12,202 15 0

The annexed account of the imports from New Zealand into the port of London will show their nature. The ports are not specified, neither are the settlements from which the exports were made: – Oil, sperm, 29 tuns; wool, 667 bales; tallow, 46 casks; copper ore, 240 tons; hides, 783, imported in five ships; the average cargo of wool being 133 bales; the average number of passengers, 115; and the total value, 20,537l.

The natives in the Wellington district have made great progress in civilization. They are now extensive agriculturists, flock-owners, mill-owners, shipowners, even to the commanding and navigating their own coasting vessels. They form solely the commercial medium into the interior, and enter upon the

WHALE FISHERY.

enterprise with an earnestness and avidity scarcely second to the restless Anglo-Saxon race, whose appetite for universal dominion has planted its offshoots on these distant shores. Many of them have become comparatively rich, and their bills are recognized as a trustworthy medium of exchange by the bankers of the settlement. So wonderful a change in the habits and position of a barbarous people, within so short a period of twelve years, is without parallel in history.

A more particular description of the Wellington district is unnecessary for any practical purposes of the emigrant, who only requires such information as may guide him in his choice of locality. Wellington must at present be regarded as the chief commercial settlement in the New Zealand Company's territories. The quantity of land given out only amounts to 100,000 acres, and of this a considerable quantity is at Manawatu, at some distance up Cook's Strait. The chief attention of the inhabitants has been turned to commerce, and to the whale fishery, in which lucrative pursuit they have been eminently successful; Cook's Strait being in the very centre of the resorts of the cetacean tribes; and the town itself, from its locality and from its magnificent harbour, being the point to which all produce collected on the New Zealand coasts must necessarily tend. As the colonization of the Middle Island proceeds, the importance of Wellington as a commercial station will rise in proportion.

As a locality for emigrants, it is therefore best adapted to the purposes of those whose aim is commerce. The lands which were allotted to it in the first formation of the settlement have all been sold, and the majority of the sections are in the hands of absentees, as they are termed in the colony; that is, of gentlemen in England, who by their contribution of means towards supplying the funds for the exportation of labour, at the first outset of the colony, purchased the greater portion of the land in the Wellington settlement. An emigrant, therefore, who is desirous of becoming an agriculturist at Wellington, must either purchase a section in England from the proprietor

VALLEY OF THE WAIRARAPA.

of it, or he must purchase, on his arrival in the colony, from some proprietor of land there, or from the Crown.

The price of land in Wellington varies more according to its vicinity to the town and its accessibility to roads, than to any quality of land. The whole of the land is so well adapted to the various purposes of agriculture, that at present the quality of land enters but little into the calculation. Land is now sold by auction, at the upset price of 1l. per acre, its actual value being determined by the further biddings, according to locality and accessibility – the latter being an important consideration.

When the valley of the Wairarapa is regularly colonized, it being at present occupied only by a few squatters, Wellington will then be as pre-eminent for agriculture and wool-growing, as it is now rapidly becoming for commerce. With the finest harbours in New Zealand, and a most extensive district for agricultural and pastoral pursuits, it must then become a place of great importance, and the lands in the vicinity of the town and on the Hutt will rise greatly in value. The sagacity which chose the district as the first and principal settlement will then become still more apparent. The settlement is already making great strides towards prosperity. Excellent roads are being formed in every direction, and as they progress, agriculture progresses with them. Until, however, the valley of the Wairarapa shall receive a body of emigrants, commerce, as we have before stated, will form the staple pursuit of Wellington; a pursuit for which, above all others, it is best fitted both by nature and circumstances.

Connected with Wellington are the small settlements of Wanganui and Manawatu, with a number of whaling stations and trading depots scattered along the coast. The principal town of Wanganui is Petre, which forms the nucleus of a rich agricultural country. The river on which Petre stands, having a bar harbour, is inaccessible to vessels, except of a light draught of water. The Manawatu River possesses a similar character. On this stream there are some saw-mills, the country being

DESCRIPTION OF WELLINGTON.

well wooded, and the timber being of a valuable kind for building and other purposes.

The following extract from a recent letter gives a very fair account of the older settlements of New Zealand: –

"We sighted the Snare rocks, off the coast of New Zealand, on Wednesday, the 1st of September. The wind being foul, obliged us to go round the east side of the island, instead of running up through Cook's Strait to Nelson, our first port.

"We coasted along this truly magnificent coast during four days, and had the mortification of seeing Otago (my destination) in full view on Sunday, the 5th of Sept., quite close to shore, and saw the houses here and there quite plain. Being the fag end of winter, the high mountain ranges were covered with snow, both here and for a great many miles to the northward, as far as we kept in sight of them. The weather off the coast was rather cold, but very fine and bracing. I fear it will be two months before we see Otago again, as we have to go to Wellington, Nelson, and Canterbury first.

"The coast is beautifully undulated; and, although I thought Australian scenery very fine, the scenery here is far grander.

"Some very fine wild ducks flew round our ship off Otago harbour, black, and as large as a goose. We anchored in Wellington harbour on the 9th of September; it is a fine harbour, surrounded by hills – shoaly, reefy, and dangerous at the entrance, but splendid, safe, and with deep water when you get in. It is a very windy harbour indeed. Wellington is built at the foot of a range of hills, running almost down to the beach, well wooded, and very steep. It is built in a crescent form round the beach, and the houses are built almost entirely of wood, on account of the frequent shocks of earthquake. The climate is good; it is rather cold here just now though; the country round is very pretty, though wild.

"There is not much ready money in Wellington just now, for we have arrived at a critical time. The news from the Port Phillip gold diggings now exceeds all that I ever heard in England. I have seen some late Australian papers, and the

THE MAORIES.

accounts really seem incredible. There are several returned diggers now in Wellington who have been very successful: one mechanic I was speaking to yesterday, has brought a cwt. of gold back with him, the result of nine weeks' labour. The effect here has been electric: settlers, storekeepers, mechanics, and clerks, are all off – 200 left the morning we arrived. But there is one great fact in connection with their going worth noting – and that is, they all mean to return to New Zealand again when they have made the money. There seems to be something in this colony that makes every one here speak well of it: the climate and scenery certainly are lovely, and, from all the accounts I get, the soil seems most fertile. Wages are high here; bread is 1s. the four pound loaf, meat is 1s. per pound, tea and grocery middling; vegetables very cheap, good, and in great plenty; clothes of all descriptions frightfully dear.

"There is no poverty here – not even among the Maories (pronounced Mowry); the consequence is an independence that is quite startling to those not accustomed to a colony (however, I was a little used to it from my former trip to Australia): some of my fellow-passengers could not get their packages carried by any but natives. The gold fever has thinned this place somewhat, and Canterbury, I hear, has lost a great number of its male population for a time; they all intend returning, however, before the winter (which begins in May here), and I expect the colony will be much benefited by the temporary desertion, for the returned settlers will have plenty of money to spend.

"The Maories are fine, intelligent people, copper-coloured, good forehead, eyes, and hair – not at all like black people – not darker than a half-caste from India; they bear a good name for sobriety and honesty.

"I fully intend to adopt the colony: I think I shall like Otago, for all the accounts here speak in the highest praise of it. A vessel from that port, bound to the diggings, came in here a day or two ago, and I had an opportunity of hearing the opinion of people from that settlement. They spoke of it in the

FISH.

highest terms as regards agricultural and pastoral capabilities, but not so well in a commercial point of view. They seem to think that many settlers at Otago have taken out a lot of goods on speculation, and have lost a considerable sum; whereas, if they had taken the money, and embarked it in sheep or cattle, they would have done well. However, I shall advise you fully on these points when I arrive, and have gained a little insight into the state of affairs there.

"It seems to be generally admitted here, that Otago stands number one for agriculture, dairy produce, and sheep-farming; and that Nelson and New Plymouth stand next.

"Sept. 17. – We have now been in port eight days. Every day, as the spring advances, the weather and scenery improve. I am rapidly regaining my health in the beautiful climate. I was much shaken though, I find, from my illness on the voyage. Chocolate paste or powders which are easily mixed), powdered ginger, peppermints, rusks, seidlitz powders, lemonade powders, and pickles, our friends will find a great comfort on the voyage, and they should bring a private store with them. We had a pudding for dinner to-day, which M – – - made, composed of a green parrot and some parson-birds which one of our fellow-passengers shot; they were delicious, particularly the parrot. Six of the cuddy gentlemen are off to the diggings until the end of summer, when they return to New Zealand.

"There was no sickness on board, with the exception of myself, all the way out.

"The books may well say that the harbours abound in fish – abound is a poor word for it: they are literally alive with fish. M – – – and myself now live almost entirely on them at every meal; they are delicious, and in great variety. We have a fish here exactly like the salmon, and of as good flavour. On a sunny morning the surface of the harbour is a complete mass of fishy life.

"There are plenty of ducks here too, and many fine birds; the native dove is a lovely bird, and is particularly worth notice.

JOURNEY FROM AUCKLAND.

"We proceed in a few days to Nelson, and from thence to Canterbury and Otago. I do not much regret having come on past Otago, as it will enable me to form an opinion as to the relative advantages and capabilities of each place, and to report the same to you. I shall write from each port. – I remain, your affectionate brother, * * * "

The annexed account of a journey from Auckland to Wellington gives an admirable picture of the interior of the country: –

AN OVERLAND JOURNEY FROM AUCKLAND TO PORT NICHOLSON.

"From Tauranga I went by sea to Opotiki, in the Bay of Plenty, a small harbour fit only for vessels of twenty tons burthen. The appearance of the country is good along the coast, but the badness of the harbours must for a long time render it unavailable for agricultural purposes. I travelled from Opotiki to Wakatani, where the country continues still to improve. Midway between the two is a small harbour called Ohewa, which, excepting Tauranga, is the best and safest in the Bay of Plenty. From Wakatani to Kupanga, a pah under Mount Edgecombe, I had the pleasure of dragging my weary limbs through a swamp twenty-five miles in length. Swamps are disagreeable things, you must be aware; but they are no impediment to the New Zealand traveller.

"The land about Kupanga is exceedingly barren; there is nothing but decomposed pumice-stone for a depth of fifteen feet. Under this deposit the original clay makes its appearance, together with huge trees, the remains of former forests, lying prostrate, and deeply imbedded in the tough clay. Towards the base of Mount Edgecombe, and for two-thirds of its height, the character of the soil changes and becomes of the richest description, being made of decomposed volcanic ashes. Mount Edgecombe is in itself a beautiful object, and the numerous lovely valleys at its base afford the most splendid situations for vineyards that I have ever seen in this or any other country.

MINERAL SPRINGS.

If ever there was a country adapted for the cultivation of the vine, it is surely this: soil, situation, and climate all combine to render it the proper habitation of the grape.

"From Mount Edgecombe the road leads through a desolate pumice-stone valley thirty miles in length. This dreary region, together with the savage natives who inhabit it, tends not a little to impress upon the lonely traveller that he has actually entered the valley of the shadow of death itself. The sight of a magnificent forest, ten or twelve miles long, with its evergreen and stately pines, will, however, enable him to go through this dreary valley, together with the prospect of being able to bathe his wearied limbs in the luxurious baths of Rotorua, to whose picturesque shores and health-giving waters this forest leads. Rotorua is, as you are aware, a lake about ten miles long and eight miles broad; its superfluous waters find their way to Makatu by the river Rotoiti. I wish I could give you any thing like an adequate idea of the beauty and loveliness of the scenery in this part of the country; it abounds in all that you have seen or fancied of the wild and magnificent, combined with the still simpler and tamer, but no less beautiful landscape. While the 'wild glen so dreary' is well calculated to conjure up all the hideous spectres of old Highland and Irish superstition; gently undulating hills, verdant dales, placid lakes and sparkling streams, will almost persuade the traveller that he is one of the suite of Lalla Rookh herself. The character of the country is very peculiar, and, I think, decidedly eastern. But to you, as a medical man, the mineral waters and hot springs and baths which surround the great pah of Oinemutu, will be a subject of great interest; though, were their health-giving and healing powers sufficiently known, I cannot for a moment doubt the deep injury to your profession. Nature has here supplied the simple and appropriate cure for all the ills that flesh is heir to; and not only are the means of cure supplied, but this happy region forbids the approach or the appearance of disease. The natives are not only healthy, but they are also the strongest, the best made,

ROTURUA.

and the cleanest in all New Zealand; and such are the virtues of these waters that, like the Pool of Siloam, the halt, the maimed, the lame, the blind, and the leper, are conveyed to them from the most remote regions of New Zealand. Scrofula, and certain other prevailing cutaneous diseases, are perfectly unknown among the inhabitants of Rotorua. They luxuriate from morning till night in their baths, which are made by nature of any suitable temperature. But though the natives thus indulge in the bath with impunity, I could not remain in it for a longer period than ten minutes. I had been suffering from rheumatism before I came to Rotorua, but the tepid bath soon removed all the symptoms, and restored me to my usual state of health. Some of these springs are strongly impregnated with sulphur, others saline, tasting much of Epsom and Glauber salts; others, again, are decidedly alkaline, so much so, that a cloth soiled with any unctuous substance becomes soapy when washed in the water. I had no means of testing either their strength or their qualities, but I found that they affected silver differently. In some of the springs it was coloured black, in some yellow, and in others blue. The natives cook ail their provisions in the hot springs; potatoes take about fifteen minutes; to a stranger they have at first a peculiar taste, but this he gradually becomes reconciled to, and even insensible of. I have remarked that the teeth of all the natives are black, but not permanently so, as I discovered by some of them who accompanied me to Port Nicholson, whose teeth became as white as those of any other person before their return. So fond are they of the bath, that every family has one constructed for its own peculiar use. These baths are in general neatly lined with stone.

"In consequence of this subterranean action of fire, air, and water, the temperature of Rotorua is considerably high; so much is this the case, that the natives even in the winter time use no fires, but in cold weather betake themselves to an open space in the centre of the pah, whose heat is sufficiently high to render them comfortable during the coldest weather

ROTURUA.

in this place they squat with their blankets over their heads. The hot springs are not confined to one or two places, but are so numerous that it is dangerous for a stranger to walk about without a guide; at least if he does he runs a great risk of scorching the soles of his feet. In attempting to wade through one of the rivers I had my foot very severely scorched from a hot spring in the bottom of the river, which is itself not only cold, but of considerable size. The water rises in some of the springs to the height of fifteen and twenty feet in regular jets, others emit steam like a high-pressure engine. The natives say, that the waters rise higher during westerly winds, and fall with the easterly; but this I had not the means of ascertaining the truth of, nor can I understand why it should be the case. The country in the neighbourhood of Rotorua is exceedingly picturesque. Besides Rotorua itself, there are several other beautiful lakes, such as Rotoiti, Kokatini, and Rotoihu.

"This would be a splendid place for old retired East Indians, it affords such lovely sites for houses, gardens, and vineyards, &c. &c.; and what with rocks, woods, lakes, rivers, waterfalls; hot, cold, tepid, and vapour baths, together with the artificial luxuries of billiards, news-rooms, &c, the bilious-livered old gentlemen might enjoy themselves here much more than they can ever expect to do either in South Australia or the Cape. The temperature is equable in this place throughout the year, though, unlike South Australia, it certainly never rises to 98 degrees in the shade, and 120 degrees in the sun; and I am sure the stagnant and nitrous waters of the Torrens, however strongly recommended by the disinterested company, will never impart the health and vigour which the Rotorua waters bestow. Many an old dyspeptic lady in England, and gouty rheumatic gentleman, would bless their stars if they had an opportunity of drowning their blue devils in these springs. I am certain that, in a medical point of view, there is not a spa or mineral water in England or Europe, whose virtues are half as efficacious as those of the Rotorua springs, affording, as they do, such a variety – chalybeate, sulphurous, saline, and alkaline,

LEVEL COUNTRY.

and each of these of every shade of temperature, from the cold to the steam or vapour bath.

"Before leaving Rotorua and its enchanting scenery, I must not forget the inhabitants of this delightful region. Perhaps you are aware that some years ago they were the most disorderly in all New Zealand, but through the exertions of the excellent and exemplary missionary, who labours so assiduously and successfully amongst them, they are by far the most civilized and the best in the country. The reformation which has taken place is truly surprising, and most gratifying; they not only cultivate European plants and grasses, but they have also constructed bridges over the rivers, and have actually, under the superintendence of the missionary, completed a line of road a hundred miles in length in the Rotorua district alone, through woods, hills, and ravines that were otherwise impassable. These are the people your Auckland government would treat as barbarian and savage, incompetent to act for themselves or to manage their own affairs.

"Leaving reluctantly the Rotorua country and its delightful baths, I travelled by Taupo over a fine and level country, thickly covered with grass, well watered, and admirably adapted both for sheep and cattle, indeed, more so than any other place I have seen, either in this country or New Holland. This beautiful plain extends in one direction for fifty or sixty miles, in another I could not discover its termination; the natives say the land is similar all the way to Ahuiri, in Hawke's Bay, and I should say, from the appearance of the country, they are correct. The country is perfectly level from Rotorua to within twenty miles of Cook's Strait, and were the woods cleared for twenty miles from Port Nicholson, say to Rangatiki, which is between Manawatu and Wanganui, there would not be the slightest difficulty in riding from Port Nicholson to Tauranga or the valley of the Thames; so that your project, or rather prediction, some years ago, of the possibility of making a road from the Thames to Port Nicholson, is not only perfectly correct, but very easily practicable. Such a line of

TONGARIRO.

road would confer not only much benefit on each of the settlements, but would also be the means of bringing the natives of the interior into frequent and friendly intercourse with the European population.

"In speaking of the Rotorua springs, I forgot to mention the existence of similar ones at the head of the Waikato River, which takes its rise in Lake Taupo, and runs its fierce and rapid course through an immense tract of country, tearing its way through hills of pumice-stone and masses of old lava. When in the interior, I had an opportunity of seeing the famed and snow-clad Tongariro; but I did not venture an ascent to the regions of eternal snow; indeed, were I disposed, I could not procure a native to accompany me as guide: they look upon the monarch of mountains with too much fear and reverence to tread upon its pure soil; it is tabooed as the sacred residence of their Atua, or god – who, if their account be true, delights himself much more in frost and snow than I have any desire to do. It is a remarkable feature in the native character, that, notwithstanding their professions of Christianity, they still pertinaciously adhere to all their former superstitions. The heathen taboo as firmly binds the converted native as it does the unconverted. The missionaries have not perhaps attempted, in this respect, to break upon their ancient custom; it is at all events notorious, that even the missionaries themselves, in their purchases from the natives, reverence and respect the custom, by paying for taboo and dead bodies as well as for the land itself. The country at some distance from Port Nicholson is perhaps as good as in the neighbourhood of Auckland, but it is covered with trees of such enormous size as to make the expense of clearing not only a great drawback, but a difficulty scarcely to be surmounted by an early settler."

CHAPTER VIII. THE VALLEY OF THE WAIRARAPA.

THE VALLEY OF THE WAIRARAPA.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE VALLEY OF THE WAIRARAPA.

Description of the valley – The Ruamahunga – Sheep and cattle-breeding – Climate – Vegetation – Management of stock – Grapes – Shrubs – Fruits – New Zealand flax.

THE Wairarapa is an extensive valley near Wellington, stretching from Palliser Bay, at the eastern entrance of Cook's Strait, to Hawke's Bay, on the east coast. This valley, whether for extent, fertility, and general adaptation to pastoral or agricultural purposes, is one of the finest yet discovered in New Zealand. It is a remarkable circumstance, that whilst, at the outset of the first settlement at Wellington, there was a great outcry about want of land for cultivation – which outcry was echoed in England and in the neighbouring colonies, all of which were jealous of the rising importance of New Zealand, the capabilities of which they well knew – this splendid district should have been within the prospect from the door of the Surveyor-General of the New Zealand Company in Wellington. Whilst he was giving out land sections at Manawatu, Wanganui, and other places at a remote distance from the settlement, this fine country, on which half a million of people might have at once sat down, without elbowing each other, was within sight every time he went out of his own house, a few insignificant hills being the only barrier to its full prospect. How such an oversight could have occurred, and especially amidst the general discontent of people being

DESCRIPTION OF THE VALLEY.

compelled to accept sections so far from the settlement, he can best explain.

The valley of the Wairarapa, properly so called, as distinguishing it from the plains about Ahuriri, with which it is connected, contains, in round numbers, about half a million acres of plain and down, as undulating land is called in England, – the plain, however, predominating. This extensive plain is bounded by hills of almost equal value for the purposes of pasturage. Of the plain, about 100,000 acres is covered with fine timber, chiefly totara, matai, hiora, kahikatea, manuka, &c, all highly valuable for the purposes of cabinet-work and carpentery. About 200,000 acres consist of open land covered with grass, anise, fern, flax, and tohi-tohi. This soil is in general less rich than the timber land, but still possessing, in common with similar land in other parts, great fertility.

At the southern end of the valley are two extensive lakes, covering an area of about 50,000 acres, but they are so shallow as to be comparatively useless: there is no entrance seaward, in consequence of a complete bar of sand, and being surrounded by low swampy land. The bar, which is formed by the southerly winds, to the full force of which Palliser Bay lies entirely exposed, closes the lake during the summer months (generally from December to May), until the accumulated waters burst the barriers that confine them, and open a passage to the sea. The river Ruamahunga runs through the whole valley, and loses itself in the lakes; it is from six to nine chains wide: the channel of the river, until it leaves the lakes, is deep enough for a vessel of fifty tons, and whale-boats can ascend the river for twenty or thirty miles from the point where it leaves the lake, after which it becomes a succession of shoals and falls; so much so, that it is only in time of freshets that canoes can reach further, and then they can be poled up to within a few miles of the end of the valley. The floods rise suddenly and considerably; the greatest rise which has yet been experienced is sixteen feet.

THE RUAMAHUNGA.

The district may be divided into three parts, each possessing its distinct and peculiar characters; the lowest part, or that nearest the sea, and the western side of the lakes, is mostly swampy, and is covered during the winter months with water: the eastern side, on which the stations are formed, consist chiefly of grass land; the lower ground near the river consists of the woodland previously described. Beyond these, in what may be termed the valley of the Upper Wairarapa (by far the larger division of the district), there are magnificent grassy plains, the soil of which is of the richest description, intersected by belts of wood, and watered by numerous streams. This district is easily connected with the plains of Ahuriri, which, at a moderate estimate, comprise an area of five hundred square miles of level grass land, from which there is an easy communication with the Manawatu district.

The river Ruamahunga is itself navigable, the channel being sufficiently deep for vessels of forty or fifty tons, whilst whale-boats can ascend the river for twenty or thirty miles above the lake. As the colony advances, these lakes will, no doubt, be formed into inland harbours. The improvement of the navigation of the bar presents no insuperable difficulty, and from the great rise of the floods in the river (sixteen feet), it will be easy to direct the surplus water so as to form an available passage for larger vessels. They who have witnessed the deepening of the river Severn in our own country, by simply directing the flood water of the river upon the banks of sand which impede the navigation, will easily conceive that there will be no great difficulty in so directing the floods of the Ruamahunga, as to remove the greater portion of the obstacles which at present exist. But this will form a work for a more advanced stage of the colony. There is no difficulty but what a scientific engineer would readily surmount.

Everything in relation to this district, or its approach, is necessarily interesting to the settler. Below, we furnish an

SHEEP AND CATTLE STATIONS.

account of the length of the road up to the Hutt to the Wairarapa. From Pipitea Pa to the extremity of the road already-made, the distance is 19 miles. From that to the crossing of the Mungaroa is 6 miles. From Mungaroa to the end of the survey lines of the Upper Hutt, the distance is 2 miles 47 chains, or more than 2 1/2 miles. From the last named to the Pakuratahi, the distance is 2 miles and 63 chains. From thence to the summit of the Remeitaka, the distance is 2 miles and 52 chains. And thence to the Wairarapa Plains, the distance is 3 miles 78 chains, or nearly 4 miles. The whole distance by these measurements, from Pipitea Pa to the Plains of Wairapara, is 37 miles, which may be shortened from 1 to 1 1/2 mile.

The first station at Wairarapa was established by Messrs. Clifford and Vavasour, in the beginning of the year 1844, since which time the stations have gradually increased in number. The present number of sheep and cattle stations is thirteen, of which six have been formed during the past year. These receive their supplies from Wellington, but sufficient wheat is cultivated at each station, as soon after its formation as the season permits, to supply those who have the care of it with flour, and a garden well stocked with vegetables is to be found at most of the stations. A yearly rent is paid to the natives by the owners of the different stations, averaging about twelve pounds a year each. The stations vary in size, and the owners of some of the larger stations pay twice and even three times the above amount as rent to the natives, according to the extent of land they occupy. The ferry across the lake is also in the hands of the natives, and is a source of much annoyance to the settlers from the arbitrary and exorbitant charges usually exacted. Most of the stations are bounded on either side by streams, and are well watered, so that the facilities for washing the wool at sheep-shearing are very great. The shearing of the sheep usually commences about the middle of December. In New South Wales 2 1/2 lb. is found to be the average weight of a fleece, but from the superiority of the food and climate

SHEEP BREEDING.

in New Zealand, the wool is found to increase in weight and length of staple, and the average weight of a fine-woolled fleece may be correctly stated at from 3 1/2 to 4 lb. But we may shortly hope for still greater improvements in the wool from the stations at Wairarapa, from the introduction by Mr. Clifford of some of Lord Western's celebrated breed of pure Merino rams, which have been imported from England, and which will not only increase the fineness of the wool and length of staple, but increase also the weight of carcass. Another peculiarity connected with this part of the subject deserves notice. In England during the winter, from different causes, and in New South Wales in the dry weather, from want of sufficient food, the Merino sheep receive a check, and a joint is formed in the wool which injures the staple; but in New Zealand, from the more equable climate and abundance of pasture, this peculiarity does not exist – the sheep continue to thrive, and the wool to grow, all the year round. Another advantage is to be found in the absence of burrs in the New Zealand runs; in New South Wales these are found to tear the wool, so as materially to injure the fleece and diminish its quantity.

The best time for lambing has not as yet been fully ascertained. Stations have been formed at different times of the year, and the ewes brought down from New South Wales have been mostly in lamb. This season (1845), the lambing has commenced at some of the stations in the beginning of July, and continued until the end of November. It is thought that the beginning of October will be found the most favourable time, as the spring lambs will escape the wet weather and cold winds which prevail in the winter. The yearly increase from the average of the different stations last season is stated to be ninety per cent., and at one of the largest stations the increase has been found to be upwards of 100 per cent.

From the various description of land included in the sheep runs, it is difficult to state with accuracy the average number of sheep per acre, which can be maintained on them in their present state; it is found that a great improvement speedily

CLIMATE.

takes place both in the quantity and quality of the pasture after a station has been some time established, that wherever the fern grows it speedily disappears, and fine grass springs up in its place, so that these runs will, in a few years, be able to keep a much greater number of sheep than they could now support, from the superior quality and increased quantity of the food.

The best time for forming a station is during the summer months, not later than the 1st of May. The sheep should be brought from Sydney shorn, and not in lamb. After they have been landed, and have in some degree recovered from the effects of the voyage, they should be put to the ram, so as to begin lambing by the 1st of October.

During the winter months sheep should be brought from Sydney unshorn, to protect them from the wet and cold, of which, after the voyage, the Merino sheep are very susceptible; particularly after leaving the warm, dry climate of New South Wales.

The climate of the valley of the Wairarapa is very different to that of Wellington; being more inland, it is not so exposed to the wind, and is consequently warmer, with less rain during the winter months. The settlers there state that the past winter has resembled the month of May in England, in point of climate and temperature.

A dray road has been formed from the most northern station to Tekopi, on the eastern side of Palliser Bay, where there is an anchorage for small coasting vessels, which will enable the owners of the stations to send their wool to Wellington. Butter and cheese, the produce of the dairy stations at Wairarapa, are sent to Wellington, where they find a ready market.

The following notice of this fertile and extensive valley, with its productions, and the mode in which agricultural and pastoral pursuits are carried on, has been communicated to the author by Mr. Allom, himself one of the first settlers in the district: –

STOCK FARMING.

"DEAR SIR, – -I shall be happy to comply with your request that I would give you some idea of stock-farming in the Wairarapa district, at the time I left the colony.

"With regard to the following observations all I profess to do is to give an account either of operations in which I have taken a part, or of facts which have come under my own knowledge. And first, let me correct a very prevalent error, that the valley itself extends from Palliser Bay to the Ahuriri. This is not so; what is really the Wairarapa valley, or the valley of the Rua-Mahunga, extends to a distance of fifty or sixty miles only, when commences a district of undulating downs and plains, interspersed with large masses of forests, which reach in a northerly direction to Hawke's Bay; and throughout this whole range the downs, table-land, and plain, furnish one of the richest and most extensive pastoral countries imaginable. This latter part of the country is called the Ahuriri district. It extends in a westerly and south-westerly direction from Hawke's Bay towards the Rua Wahine and Tararua ranges of mountains, between which flows the Manawatu river.

"From the nature of the country and of the climate, New Zealand stock-farming differs from any other. One of its most valuable peculiarities is in consequence of the climate, viz., your cattle are never housed either in summer or winter. They are always in the open air, or, as they would say in New Zealand, 'on the run.' Hence, whatever may be the extent of the flocks and herds, the only farm buildings requisite are, a strong post-and-rail stock-yard for the purposes of milking and occasionally mustering the stock. This favourableness of climate again gives rise to what in my opinion is the greatest charm of the stock-farmer's life in New Zealand. His stock being always free to roam where they please, he must be continually in the saddle if he does his duty to them or to himself; and this constant horsemanship carries with it a life of healthy excitement, to which, at times, even fox-hunting must yield. Few who

VEGETATION.

have not tried it can have any idea of the excitement that this occupation affords.

"At the head of Palliser Bay, which is the commencement of the Wairarapa district, the valley is about eight miles wide, and the average width of the whole I should think is not much more. For the first ten or twelve miles, a strip of land, about three miles and a half wide, on the eastern side only, is available for the purposes of grazing; the remaining portion of that part being occupied by the Wairarapa Lake, and by extensive swamps on its margin; some of which, however, instead of being a nuisance, as might be supposed, are quite the reverse, affording abundance of green food for cattle in the dry seasons, when the finer kinds of grasses are parched up.

"As you get further up the valley the whole of its width becomes available either for pastoral or agricultural purposes: for the former on the eastern side, for the latter on the western. The proportion of woodland here increases, the soil being of very good quality, and the land generally of a drier nature, although there are here and there some extensive swamps. The swamps of the Wairarapa have generally a sound bottom, and the green food which they produce consists chiefly of tohi-tohi, sow-thistle, and two or three coarse descriptions of grass, all of which are in the greatest luxuriance in the summer season, when they are most wanted. They are of great importance to the cattle-farmer: the period of the year when the cattle put on most fat is certainly that which I have just mentioned. There is a great variety of native grasses; in some places they form quite a close sward, in others they are more scanty, and are mixed with other kinds of vegetation, such as coarse grasses, fern, tohi-tohi, porcupine grass, flax, tutu, manuka, and others. But the trampling of the stock soon causes everything to disappear but the finer grasses, which quickly form a fine pasture.

"The forest land is of good quality, a proof of which is the very fine timber it produces, particularly the Kahikatea, Rimu, Mai or Matahi, and Totara, which woods are most useful for

STATIONS.

the various purposes to which they are applied in housebuilding, the making of shingles, fencing, and constructing stock-yards. The soil of the forest land is much better on the banks of the Rua-Mahunga than it is elsewhere, on account of the annual floods, which have a periodical rise similar to that on the Hutt; and it is much more easily cleared, there being comparatively little underwood.

"The whole of the land available for sheep or cattle runs, for a distance of forty miles from Palliser Bay – that is, in what I will call the lower and mid valley – is now occupied by squatters; and persons wishing to form stations must now go further north towards the Ahuriri. There are fourteen stations in the space commencing with that at Cape Kaua Kaua occupied by Mr. Purvis Russell (a very enterprising and industrious settler), and ending at Ahiaruhe and Parinuikuaka, owned by Messrs. Tiffen and Northwood. The stock on these runs I estimate at about 18,000 to 20,000 sheep, 2,000 head of cattle, from 90 to 100 horses, with mules, donkeys, and pigs innumerable, owned by both Europeans and natives. The quantity of land occupied by these fourteen runs is about 100,000 acres. This would give an average of about 7,000 acres to each station; but, in estimating the actual pasturage, I think that full twenty-five per cent, ought to be deducted for unavailable hill, swamp, and woodland. The remaining part of the Wairarapa, which is unoccupied, being chiefly woodland, and difficult of access until the Hutt road is finished, is by far the largest, and comprehends all of the western side of the valley, about 50,000 acres of which, at the lower end, is occupied by the Wairarapa lake.

"I will now tell you something about the cattle in this district. With the exception of the few that have been imported direct from England in the emigrant ships, they are all from Australia; the various stations near Sydney, Twofold Bay, and Port Fairy having supplied the greatest number. These are principally of the short-horned breed, and very good cattle they are, although you occasionally meet with some importations, the breed of which not even a good judge could

MODES Of MANAGING CATTLE.

determine. The best breed of short-horned cattle in the Wairarapa is at Taua-nui station, now owned by Messrs. Tully and Scroggs. They belong to Captain Daniell, of Wellington, and at the present time there are of these two hundred head; and Mr. Ludlam is the only person in the colony who possesses a herd of Devon cattle. They are now running at Kopungarara (Mr Bidwill's station), and for pureness of breed are not inferior to the Durhams. Captain Smith has also a very superior breed of short-horned cattle at Huangaroa; these were selected by Mr. George Duppa from the best herds in New South Wales,

"I will now explain some of the peculiarities of the New Zealand mode of cattle-farming; and the first one is, that, unless it be near a town, you never have to house your cattle in any season. Very little attention is paid at present, nor does it seem necessary, to the period of the year during which a cow should calve. I have not found that a calf dropped in the winter suffers in the slightest degree from the effects of that season.

"The owners of cattle in this district, and indeed in New Zealand generally, have two modes of managing them; and the preference depends on, whether the object you have in view is that of rearing first-rate stock, without any regard to making butter and cheese, or whether you desire to make the most of the latter. These two objects are believed by some to be quite incompatible; and, therefore, with the exception of Taua-nui and Kopungarara, they make at the other stations as much butter and cheese as possible; the calves reared at these places too often showing, by their hide-bound staring coats and stunted growth, that they have been fed on skim milk only.

"At the two above-mentioned stations a very different system is pursued. The object is to rear fine stock; and, therefore, little more butter is made than is required for their own consumption. When a cow calves, the sooner she is brought to the homestead the better, as the calf soon gets wild. The calf is then put into the calf-house, where it generally remains for a

RARENESS OF DISEASE.

short time, in order that it may become tame, and that the mother may learn to feed near the homestead with the other cows, which she is sure to do on account of the wish to be within hearing of her calf, and which has also the effect of making her very quiet. At the expiration of two or three weeks, the calf is allowed to go out during the day in company with the rest of the cows and calves. They are all driven into the stockyard at sunset; the calves are then separated, and the cows turned out to go where they please till morning. They seldom go far away, and generally return at night to sleep round the outside of the stockyard. In the morning, the cows are again collected in the yard, and a small quantity of milk taken from each. They will, of course, produce far more than is sufficient to feed their calves; but at these stations a certain portion only is requisite for consumption of the people, or as food for pigs. The calves are branded, when about six months old, with the initial mark of the owner, by means of a heated iron applied to the skin, which leaves a mark that cannot be eradicated. This operation having been performed, they are of no further trouble, and are fit for the butcher at any time after they have passed their third year. Captain Daniell's steers weigh, when they are between three and four years old, from seven to eight hundred pounds; and if allowed to live until they are four years old, or a little more, they frequently reach nine hundred pounds in weight.

"The cattle are healthy in New Zealand to an extraordinary degree. During a residence of three years in the Wairarapa, with the exception of a few heifers slipping their calves, I can remember scarcely any instances of anything happening to them. In no instance can I recollect the occurrence of any disease amongst them, except a sort of scab or mange which attacks calves only, but which is of so insignificant a nature, that it speedily cures itself when the calves are turned out on the run.

"The butter and cheese made here is of very good quality: the cheese fetches at Wellington about 1s. per lb., and the butter from 9d. to 2s., according to the season. At some of the

NEW ZEALAND WOOL.

stations, from 100 to 150 lbs. of butter per week is made, and few make less than 50 or 60 lbs.

"I will conclude this part of the subject with a few words about stockyards. They are generally made of stout posts and rails; the corner posts ought to be much stronger than the rest, as they often have to bear the weight of a heavy bullock in branding and other operations. The yard is generally divided into three portions – viz., a large yard for the whole herd, a drafting yard, and a milking yard, at one end of which is placed the milking shed, cow bails, and calf house, the whole being so arranged that a calf can be let out to suck its mother on one side while she is being milked on the other.

"Sheep. – Almost all of the sheep in New Zealand have been imported from New South Wales, and are principally of the pure Merino breed. The Merinos have been crossed with the Leicester and the South Down; a slight cross of the latter is by some preferred, as it improves the carcass of the Merino, without making any very great difference in the quality of the wool. It is generally believed that the wool of New Zealand will rival that of New South Wales in quality, as it has already done in quantity per fleece. The average weight of the Merino fleece in New South Wales is 2 1/2 lbs.; in New Zealand it is nearly 4 lbs., and likely to increase with the improvement in the pasture and the better mode of management. Messrs. Clifford and Weld, at Warekaka, have the largest number of sheep in the Wairarapa. They have taken great pains to improve their flock by a careful selection of rams from New South Wales, and by the importation of a ram and some ewes of Lord Western's breed from England. Mr. Bidwill, at Kopungarara, has a small flock, which is said to be the best in the valley, having been picked from the celebrated flocks of MacArthur, which, for fineness of wool, are scarcely inferior to Lord Western's. Mr. Pharazyn, at Te Kopi, has also a breed of Merino sheep, which is said to be very pure.

"There is some difference of opinion as to which is the best time for lambing. Some people prefer May, and others the

INCREASE OF STOCK.

beginning of October. The advantages of lambing in the former month are, that you have plenty of feed for the ewes all the time they are suckling their young; and that, when weaning time comes, the young lambs immediately get the best grass, which is in season from September to the end of the year, when the hot weather begins. The disadvantages are, that you cannot depend upon the weather in the month of May: there are frequent gales of wind from the south-east, with cold rain, which sometimes kill the young lambs; but there is no doubt, that, if you choose to run the risk of getting fine weather at this time, you will rear much finer sheep. If you lamb in the beginning of October, your ewes get the best of the grass, and the young lambs soon begin to nibble at it; but, when weaning time comes, which will be at the hottest period of the year, there is sometimes a scarcity of feed for them.

"The quantity of lambs now reared averages from 70 to 90 per cent. There have been great losses in some flocks, principally from wild dogs, bad management, and want of knowledge of the climate. In the course of a few years, however, these causes will be removed, and the average will be nearly 100 per cent. In New South Wales, I believe, it is not more than 60 to 70. Wild dogs have been very plentiful in the Wairarapa; they have, however, been much thinned by the free use of strychnine about the runs.

"Sheep also are very healthy in this climate. There are only two diseases common among them, viz, scab and foot-rot. The former was introduced from New South Wales; the other is always the result of running on undrained lands. For two or three years the scab was found very troublesome and difficult to cure; the remedies used in New South Wales (I suppose from the greater dampness of the climate, or some other peculiarity) not being found to answer. The best mode of cure, and that which I believe to be now generally adopted, is this: – You first spot the whole flock over; that is, every spot of scab that can be found is scarified and rubbed with spirit of tar.

NATIVE GRASSES.

After two or three days have elapsed, the sheep are bathed, in such a manner that every part of the skin is equally wetted, with strong tobacco-water in a warm state, to which is added some yellow soap and some spirits of tar, in the proportion of about one wine-glassful to each sheep. This operation is performed at intervals of about one month, and seldom fails to effect a cure in two or three dressings, care being taken to send the sheep after these bathings to a clean part of the run. With regard to foot-rot, I do not think there is any peculiarity in the mode of treatment. If the disease has only just appeared, the sheep should be driven to a drier and stony part of the run. This will generally cure them. But if it be of long standing, a caustic called butyer of antimony must be applied to the foot, care being taken to cut away as much of the infected part as possible.

"The shearing season commences in December, and at present the wool is transported from Palliser Bay in open boats to Wellington. When the Hutt road is finished, most of the settlers will prefer sending their wool in drays, as, although the time occupied by the journey will be much longer, there will be no risk whatever. It frequently happens now, that a load of wool is either capsized, or so wetted as to diminish its value one-half.

"Any number of maiden ewes may be landed in Wellington at about 15s. to 18s. per head; they are picked for this price from the best flocks in New South Wales.

"A few words on the native grasses will not be out of place.

"The grasses of the Wairarapa, and indeed of New Zealand generally, are very numerous, and if cultivated, would be fully equal to English grasses: cattle eat every kind, from the coarsest to the finest. There is abundance of a native rye-grass, and the sheep are very fond of a species of couch-grass, which is the first to make its appearance in the spring; not that the grasses fail in the winter, but they become sour at that season, and do not possess the same nutritive qualities. These grasses

EDIBLE SHRUBS.

improve by cultivation, and if brought to England would no doubt become valuable adjuncts to the grazier. Grass everywhere makes it appearance whenever the fern and brushwood are burnt off, cattle running in a district speedily destroy the fern, and grass takes its place; the more this is eaten, the more turfy the land, as a matter of course, becomes. The Wairarapa is, in consequence of cattle running in it, becoming a rich grazing district; the fern has, in many parts, disappeared, and thousands of acres of the native rye-grass, and other grass, are now to be found. When the bush is destroyed, it is replaced by sowthistle, growing to the height of five or six feet. This valuable plant is found in great abundance in dry swamps. There is a great advantage in the sowthistle, it is most abundant in the hot summer months, when the ordinary pasturage becomes parched, and cattle then resort to the swamps in which it grows; the sowthistle, the natives state to have been first sown by Captain Cook, which is not unlikely to have been the case. It grows in New Zealand to an extraordinary height in most districts of the Wellington settlement. The wild turnip and wild cabbage are in many parts equally abundant, and equally beneficial to the stock-farmer.

"One great peculiarity of New Zealand is the abundance and nutritious quality of many of the native shrubs, upon which cattle eagerly browse. One of these, the karaka, which grows to be a large tree, is invariably devoured as far as cattle can reach the leaves; consequently, contrary to the experience of most other countries, the shrubs of New Zealand, everywhere existing in the most lavish abundance, become of equal value to the stockmen with the grasses themselves, and this will account in a great measure for the comparatively small district required to pasture a considerable quantity of stock.

"Some of the grasses furnish food for man and beast. The porcupine-grass is one of these. When young, it is devoured by sheep with avidity, and the root is a favourite and agreeable food both with natives and stockmen. But

THE "TOHI-TOHI."

When this grass is fully grown, it is a great annoyance to the pedestrian; the stems, as it name implies, closely resemble the quills of the porcupine, and are pretty nearly as formidable to the legs of the stockmen. Porcupine-grass is abundant in the Wairarapa, and since the introduction of cattle, is rapidly on the increase.

"There are also other grasses no less useful to cattle than to the colonists in a domestic point of view. First amongst these ranks the tohi-tohi, not more on account of its fitness for pasturage, – for when young it is greedily devoured by cattle and horses, – than on account of its value in housebuilding. The tohi-tohi is, properly speaking, a reed, which, in swampy places, grows to the height of eight or nine feet. The edge of the leaf is toothed like a saw; and from the siliceous nature of the plant, this jagged leaf requires to be handled with caution as it is capable of inflicting a disagreeable wound. The two properties of the tohi-tohi just described, together with its great length, render it invaluable for thatching roofs, for which purpose it is generally employed by European and native. The silex of the plant, by throwing off the rain renders the roof impervious to water, and the toothed edge of the leaf, penetrating the others bound up with it, renders the cohesion of the mass perfect. The only drawback to a tohi-tohi roof is its liability to fire, from which its use in towns is undesirable; but for country dwellings and outhouses, it forms the best roof that can be made. The natives are very expert in thatching with it, binding on their work with the leaves of the flax plant, and the roofs thus constructed are light, neat, durable, and waterproof.

"In addition to the leaf, the reed is equally valuable to the native, as forming a very elegant lining to the interior of his dwelling. This reed is of a deep yellow colour, and, from its flinty covering, possesses a considerable polish; these reeds are placed side by side, and perpendicularly from the floor to the roof, being tastefully bound together by the flax leaf, dyed of a glossy black by the bark of the hinau.

THE "RAUPO."

"The reed has another valuable property, which has been turned to good account by the settler. From the top of the reed springs an elegant white plume, which might be readily taken for an ostrich feather. This plume forms an excellent substitute for feathers in a bed, and is very generally used for this purpose by the stockmen of the colony, being to the feel as comfortable as a feather-bed. Care must, however, be taken to collect the plume at a proper season, and it must be thoroughly dried, for, if these matters are not properly attended to, the plume is apt to be infested by insects. Emigrants arriving in the colony in the summer should bear this use of the plant in mind; a small gratuity to a native will ensure them as many of these vegetable feathers as they may require.

"Nor are the roots of this beautiful plant void of utility; these are devoured by swine with as great avidity as are the young shoots by horses and cattle. The stockmen in the Wairarapa attach great value to the tohi-tohi. In a dry season, when the natural grasses are less abundant, the tohi-tohi is in a proper condition for the food of cattle, which betake themselves to the swamps and fatten on it; and thus the swamps, which were at one time considered of doubtful utility, are now regarded as essential for a good stock station.

"The raupo is another swamp plant, which is also used for thatching roofs, generally in combination with it. This plant grows in water, and produces a reed similar to the last plant. It is, in fact, a bulrush, and this too, when carefully dried, is used for stuffing pillows, being for this purpose even superior to tohi-tohi. But greater care is required in its preparation, as it contains insects at all times. Baking the bulrush in an oven is one of the best modes of preparation. Another and a finer kind of grass is found with the above, which is also used for thatching roofs, and is in great estimation amongst the natives for the manufacture of eel-nets.

"Of the value of the above plants to the native, it may be stated that his dwelling, together with manuka poles and

"KIA-KIA."

rafters, is entirely composed of them. Few, if any, nails are used by him, but the whole is firmly bound together with the leaf of the flax plant, and is no less substantial than if nails and timber had been the materials employed; and it is little less durable. For the outhouses of the agricultural settler, no better or cheaper architect can be found than the native artificer. These buildings are so elastic that they receive no damage from high winds.

"As little is yet made known respecting the native fruits of this district, the following remarks may prove interesting: – The fruit of the tawa resembles a prune damson, but is more oblong, colour blue-black, with a beautiful bloom. The fruit must be perfectly ripe when eaten, or it has a strong flavour of turpentine. It contains a soft bitter kernel, forming almost one-half the bulk of the fruit. The natives eat these berries in large quantities. The pulp of the fruit is most grateful to the palate, and is remarkable for the coolness which it imparts to the mouth, which renders it invaluable to the thirsty stockmen. "Kia-kia. This is a singular and very delicious fruit, springing from the base of a number of leaves, about eighteen inches to two feet in length, which radiate from the same point; at this point, or base of the leaves, is the fruit, in appearance a species of vegetable albumen, resembling, when unripe, the white of an egg when boiled; as the substance ripens it becomes darker in colour, and is very juicy: this is not properly a fruit, but an exudation from the plant from which it issues in layers, folding over each other, which separate readily; when ripe, it melts away in the mouth as would a ripe pear. The natives, who are very fond of this substance, tie the leaves over it as it grows, in order to prevent it being injured by the weather, as we should put out-door grapes in paper-bags in this country. The act of thus tying the fruit also renders it tapu, or sacred. If collected in quantities, and placed in a vessel, it deliquesces, fully one-half becoming liquid, and a large quantity of saccharine matter is the result.

NATIVE FRUITS.

"Maiberry, or matahi, is a small round fruit of the same colour as the tawa berry, the bloom being even more beautiful. This fruit is collected in baskets by the natives, when it heats. The fruit when gathered is perfectly dry, but after lying together for a few hours the juice bursts through the delicate skin in large quantities, and is very glutinous; the flavour is delicious in warm weather, being slightly acid. This is a stone-fruit, the stone occupying two-thirds of the bulk of the fruit.

"The tetoki berry is a fruit resembling a raspberry, but somewhat lighter; the flavour is slightly acid, and rather rough to the taste, exciting the saliva as would a small quantity of alum. This fruit contains a small jet-black kernel or nut, yielding a large quantity of oil, which is highly prized by the natives as an unguent for the hair. This oil will no doubt one day be appreciated by watchmakers, from its purity and freedom from gross fatty matter. The natives extract the oil by first bruising the kernels and then laying them in a flaxen mat; this is then rolled up and screwed in a contrary direction by a native at each end; the oil is thus expressed.

"The fuchsia berry, or as it is called by the natives, konini, is also highly prized. This is an oblong fruit, about three-quarters of an inch long, and a quarter of an inch in diameter. The flavour is very sweet and juicy, and forms an admirable preserve. The New Zealand fuchsia grows to the height of 20 feet, and sometimes more.

"The kaikatea berry is another favourite fruit with the natives; it is about the size of a small pea, with a very grateful flavour. This fruit is not produced annually from the same tree, but sometimes at intervals of two or three years.

"The karaka berry is one of the chief articles of food amongst the native's, who never destroy the tree itself. This fruit resembles in form a large olive, and contains a kernel. The colour is yellowish-red, and the flavour is not unlike that of a ripe medlar. After the natives have eaten the pulp from

NEW ZEALAND FLAX.

the kernel, which is then very hard and bitter, they steep it in water for months, when the bitter taste vanishes, and the fruit becomes softened, the smell being very offensive. In this condition it is considered by the native one of his chief delicacies, but one which a settler would rather decline eating.

"The tutu berry is also consumed in large quantities by the natives; it is very juicy, and this juice is fermented by them into a kind of wine, of which they are very fond. The seeds contained in the berry are poisonous, and the fruit itself should never be eaten by an European but under the direction of a native. The shrub on which it grows is very destructive to sheep and cattle, which are nevertheless fond of browsing on it. The effect on them seems to be a narcotic intoxication, from which, if they are not speedily relieved by bleeding, they soon die. The fruit should be let alone; a recent instance has occurred in which a settler and his family suffered severely from partaking of a pudding filled with the berries.

"Whilst enumerating the fruits of New Zealand, the honey (korari) of the Phormium tenax, or flax plant, must not be forgotten. This lies in the cup of the flower in somewhat considerable quantity, and surpasses, in deliciousness of flavour, the finest honey collected by bees from a variety of flowers. It is not contained at all times in every flower-cup, but its presence may be known by the colour of the flower having become of a beautiful crimson, which every flower does in its turn. It abounds, in the neighbourhood of Wellington, from August to the end of December. If the native has no paper, he frequently makes use of the green flax leaf as a species of papyrus, writing upon it with a pen or a nail, the writing being as distinct as it would be on paper, the scratches taking off the green polished surface, and leaving the delicate white fibre underneath perfectly distinct; the writing being thus white on a polished green ground. Flax gum is used for sealing letters; and flax root as a substitute for sarsaparilla.

"The nikau is not, properly speaking, a fruit, but a substance which grows on the summit of the stem of an elegant palm

WATER MELONS.

hearing the same name. As this beautiful plant sends up its slender stem to heights varying from twenty to fifty feet, and as the stem, having no notches, is difficult to ascend, the tree is usually cut down to get at the delicacy on its top. This consists of a number of concentric layers, the outer of which must be removed till the inner ones are found to be tender – these only are edible; this heart, as it may be called, is of a delicate white, and readily peels in thin flakes. The whole substance is sometimes found as thick as a man's body, the heart or centre being little thicker than his wrist.

"The pura-pura berry is another fruit much prized by the natives. This is about the size of the tawa berry, of an oval form, and a yellowish-red colour when perfectly ripe; before that, they are of a very disagreeable, bitter flavour. The same remark applies to most of the New Zealand fruits; and they are, in consequence, pronounced by the settlers not eatable, when, in fact, their flavour is very delicious. The only guide to their fitness for the purposes of eating or preserving, is the experience of the natives, who know the precise time at which they should be gathered, so as to be in perfection. The pura-pura is beginning to be highly esteemed for preserving. The fruit is full of seeds like the gooseberry.

"The water-melon is another native fruit, though not indigenous, the New Zealanders referring its introduction amongst them to the same period as potatoes – viz., the different visits of Captain Cook, of whom they always speak in terms of admiration, and even gratitude, – a very rare virtue amongst them generally. Large quantities of water-melons are grown in the vicinity of Waikanae, and in Palliser Bay; their favourite locality for growing this grateful plant is the sloping, sandy beach, just beyond the reach of the tide. The water-melon has not degenerated in flavour; and from the ease with which it is raised, it may be inferred that many of the finer kinds now known in Europe might be grown by every cottager as readily as a bed of cabbages.

"The root of the ti tree, a species of palm, is in great use

THE "TI" TREE.

amongst the natives in the vicinity of Otago. This contains a large quantity of saccharine matter, and is, in fact, a species of liquorice root. The ti tree grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet, and the small roots are alone eaten; but there is no doubt that the main root possess precisely the same qualities, being rejected only from its greater hardness. There is little doubt, that, by boiling, the whole of the root might be made to yield a great quantity of saccharine matter.

"I am, dear Sir, yours very truly,
"ALBERT ALLOM."
"G. B. Earp, Esq.

CHAPTER IX. NELSON AND THE WAIRAU.

BLIND BAY.

CHAPTER IX.

NELSON 2 AND THE WAIRAU.

Blind Bay – Massacre Bay – Country surrounding Nelson – Roads – Climate – Population – The natives – The Wairau – Port Underwood – Newton Bay – Queen Charlotte's Sound – Milton Bay – The Pelorus – Mr. Ward's letters – Farming estimates, &c.

THE eastern coast of Blind Bay, at the southern extremity of which Nelson is located, consists of a series of high bluffs, till you come to within ten or twelve miles of the bottom of the bay, where they cease; and the shore assumes a less abrupt appearance, but still rising to a considerable elevation at a little distance from the water's edge – the land here offering no great advantages for cultivation, though two or three settlers' houses, with white walls surrounded by a few acres of farm and garden, present themselves to the eye, indicating the more available portions of that part of the coast. At the point where the high bluffs cease, a very irregular bank of boulder-stones detaches itself from the main land, and, at the distance of about half a mile, runs parallel with it for eight or nine miles, nearly to the bottom of the bay. The space between this boulder-bank and the main land, for the first two miles, is filled by a flax swamp of about eight hundred acres, which, from the quantity of roots and dead timber buried in it, has evidently, at one time, been covered with a dense forest, though now there

THE HARBOUR.

is not a living tree upon it. In all probability, when the forest flourished, the ground was dry, though now extremely wet at all times of the year. Below this swamp commences a mud-flat, which extends for about five miles, and is covered with water at high tide. The last mile and a half, between the boulder and the main, forms the harbour, at the head of which the town of Nelson stands, and in which there is always abundance of water for vessels of five or six hundred tons, perfect shelter in every wind, and excellent holding ground. The boulder-bank at its termination again approaches the main to within about two hundred yards, forming by its curve a fine bight, affording the best lying place for vessels in the harbour, equal to any wet-dock in the world, and where they can be laid ashore on a smooth beach, and floated off again for purposes of repair or examination. Between the end of the boulder-bank and the main stands the Arrow Rock, fifty or sixty feet high; and between this rock and the boulder-hank is the narrow though not dangerous entrance of the harbour.

The formation of the boulder-bank is curious, and has afforded a good deal of speculation as to its origin. There is not, between it and the main, any considerable stream which might have hollowed out the intervening space, one small river or brook only existing; and that, being within two miles of its lower end, could never account for the upper portion of it. It seems as difficult to regard it as having been cast up by the action of the waves of the Pacific, for no very heavy sea rolls so far down the bay; nor is there any reason why the waves should have left the boulders half a mile from the main land, instead of depositing them on the shore; besides which the bottom of the bay consists of sand and mud – not rock or stone, such as the boulders. No cause sufficient to account for its existence appears to be in operation at present; and the easiest, as well as perhaps the most probable, solution is, to refer it to the Deluge; or if New Zealand be of later origin, to the circumstances of general commotion which must have attended

CHOICE OF BLIND BAY.

the elevation of the country, or the depression of the adjacent country from or below the waters.

The circumstance which led to the location of Nelson, in Blind Bay – a site inadequate for a settlement of the dimensions at first contemplated – is well known. The New Zealand Company, by their Agreement of 1840 with Lord John Russell, conceived themselves entitled to select any portion of the waste lands of the Southern Island, for the purpose of locating their second settlement; and it was the intention of the Company's agents to have selected Port Cooper for the purpose – a site reported to be admirably adapted for it. Governor Hobson, however, insisted on their confining themselves to what was called the Company's territory, being the portion about Cook's Strait included in their purchase from the natives. The only alternative he would allow was the neighbourhood of Auckland, four hundred miles from the Company's first settlement at Wellington, and where the Government expenditure would to a certainty have drawn away any labour brought out at the expense of the Company's settlers, had they placed their settlement within its reach. Under these circumstances, and with the limited knowledge which was then possessed by the Company's agents of the country, and the connection of its harbours with land available for agriculture, Blind Bay appeared to be the only place adapted in any way for the purpose; and there accordingly the settlement was fixed.

The subsequent discovery of a connection between the upper end of Queen Charlotte's Sound with the Wairau Plain in Cloudy Bay, proves that a better site could have been obtained within the Company's territory, had it been known at the time. No blame, however, attaches to the leaders of the Nelson expedition for not having made the discovery. When they arrived in the colony, they were under the full impression that Port Cooper and the east coast was open to them; and it was not till after they had reached Port Nicholson that Captain Hobson threw the obstacles referred to in their way.

Little time could then be afforded for exploring; three ships

SURVEY OF THE TOWN.

containing the preliminary expedition had arrived, and it was known that others were shortly to follow; for the establishment of the immigrants on board of which vessels it was necessary to make immediate preparation. A sufficient site was reported to exist in Blind Bay, and thither Captain Wakefield sailed to examine it in person. A good harbour presented itself; a considerable quantity of land available for agriculture was in immediate connection with it; and large plains were reported to exist at no great distance. So, with the general concurrence of the members of the preliminary expedition (with the exception of one gentleman, who was known to be anxious to have the settlement in the neighbourhood of Auckland, and whose prejudices often showed themselves stronger than his judgment), the settlers were disembarked, and the survey of the town of Nelson was commenced. It is very probable that had Captain Wakefield's attention been directed to Cloudy Bay, its connection with a site for a town and harbour in Queen Charlotte's Sound would have been discovered. It continued unknown for a long time afterwards; no indication of it exists on the spot; and the knowledge of the country possessed by the few Europeans (whalers and others) was very imperfect. One of the oldest of these residents, in 1844, when the pass was for the first time explored by some of the settlers from Nelson, described it as nothing but swamp, and impracticable for a road. But another reason for selecting Blind Bay existed: the members of the preliminary expedition laboured under considerable apprehension that if their settlement were placed too near Wellington, the absorption of their labour by that more advanced settlement would follow; very strong feelings of jealousy are stated to have existed on this head; and little doubt exists among those who remember the circumstances, that any attempt to locate the Nelson settlement in Cloudy Bay would have met with the strongest opposition from the land-purchasers and other members of the expedition.

The consequence, however, of its present location is, that it has been necessary to have recourse to other places than Blind

MASSACRE BAY.

Bay to obtain the quantity of land required for the Nelson scheme; Massacre Bay on the west, and Cloudy Bay on the east, having both been taken into the limits of the settlement. The connection between these districts is by no means easy, and Will eventually give them the character rather of three settlements than one, though roads can no doubt be effected between them in time.

Massacre Bay is at present only accessible from Nelson by sea, the distance being about fifty miles; but there is a possibility of making a road over the hills which separate it from Blind Bay, by a route which was explored by Mr. Heaphy in 1844, and subsequently by Messrs. Reay and Murray. The greatest defect of Massacre Bay is the absence of a good harbour, the rivers which exist in it only affording access for the smallest vessels; and though there is a tolerable roadstead behind the islands of Tata, it is from four to six miles from the best part of the land where shipping operations would be required. The district is a very pretty one; the greater portion heavily timbered, and the land extremely good. Coal and lime exist in it, both accessible at the surface on the bank of a small river (the Motupipi), in which they can at once be put on board vessels of fifteen or twenty tons burden. Of the two sections known to a certainty to contain these minerals, one, on which they have already worked, became the private property of the Company at the selection of rural lands; the other belongs to Major Baker, of Wellington. The gross amount of level land in this bay is estimated at 45,000 acres, of which at least 25,000 are fit for agriculture. The greater part of it has been surveyed for rural sections, and a considerable number were selected there, generally with medium orders of choice.

Blind Bay contains about 60,000 acres of land sufficiently level for agriculture; but not above one-half of this is of a quality adapted for that purpose. It is generally free from timber, but covered with fern; and in the swampy parts, forming a margin half a mile deep on the south and east,

SURROUNDING COUNTRY.

near the sea, with flax. The latter description of land was considered, at the period of the original selection of suburban sections, as nearly worthless; much of it was selected for the very latest orders; and some considerable portions, though only a few miles from the town, were left out of the suburban surveys altogether. It has now, however, proved to be the best land in the district, is easily drained and cleared, and bears very heavy crops. The fern land is also good when the fern grows strong and high, though, when the vegetation is stunted, it of course indicates a poor soil. But on some fern land, cultivated on a large scale, from thirty to thirty-five bushels of wheat per acre have been grown without manure, proving that it only requires proper culture to make it good land. Much of the farming in a new colony is done in a very slovenly way; and poor returns are sometimes charged to the soil which ought to be attributed to the want of skill in the farmer, or the want of labour expended upon it. The scanty capital of new colonists also prevents the improvement of poor lands; and no doubt, much that for the first generation or two will be looked on as worthless, will eventually be brought profitably under cultivation, as the art of husbandry progresses, and the means of carrying it on more scientifically increase.

A purely fern district at first affords little or no pasturage for cattle or sheep; scarcely even goats will live upon it. In Blind Bay, however, there has always been some grass, and as the stock have increased the grass increased also in a wonderful degree, so that it is now capable of maintaining a very considerable quantity. It has been owing in great degree to the semi-pastoral nature of the district, and consequent increase of stock, that the settlement has been able to stand its ground among the difficulties with which it has been surrounded.

Cloudy Bay, with Wairau Plain and Valley, forms, however, the most extensive and most valuable portion of the settlement. The whole of that district is somewhat of the shape of a skate-fish – a broad level plain, 8 or 10 miles wide,

IMPORTATION OF STOCK.

at the head of Cloudy Bay, running inland for 18 miles, when it suddenly converges to a width of 2 or 3 miles, equally level with the plain below, and extending from 40 to 50 miles further inland. Though it appears level, or may in a general description be so spoken of, there is a very considerable but gradual fall from the head of the valley to the sea, probably not less than 2,000 feet in 50 miles, but it is not perceptible to the traveller. The land for 4 or 5 miles from the sea is covered with flax and other strong vegetation, and is generally swampy, but of excellent quality, and capable apparently, like that in Blind Bay, of easy drainage; for the next 8 or 10 miles it is dry, covered with long grass, and generally of good quality; beyond this it continues grassy, the land getting lighter the further you advance up the country, till the last 16 or 18 miles, which are very poor and stony, only fit for grazing purposes. At the very extremity there are a few miles of forest. Several portions of the district (chiefly in the valley) are very stony, which were omitted from the surveys, and have no value except for pasture. The whole district, however, contains a great abundance of excellent agricultural land; but its principal value at present is to be found in the fertile pasture with which it is clothed from end to end, including the whole of the hills which bound it on the eastern side, which present some of the finest sheep-runs in the world, and extend all the way to the east coast by Cape Campbell, and so southward to the Kaikora Mountains. It is difficult to estimate the quantity of stock which may hereafter be depastured in this district, but it will certainly be very great. Since it was placed at the disposal of this settlement, the flock-owners have been hastening into it, and considerable importations of sheep and cattle have been effected, and are likely to continue. The first flock-owner who ventured into it, did so before the district was purchased by Governor Grey, when the undertaking was not without risk of interference from the Natives. This was Mr. Morse, a gentleman thoroughly qualified to act the pioneer in a new country.

ROADS.

Connected with the Wairau on the east are the Wakefield Downs, or Kaipara-to-hau, a district very similar to the Wairau, but containing only about 20,000 acres. It was surveyed for Rural Lands, and many sections selected there.

The whole contents of the Wairau and Wakefield Downs are about 200,000 acres of level land. Of this, from one-half to two-thirds are fitted for agriculture, though the lighter portions, for reasons already alluded to, are not at present very highly estimated by the settlers.

There is not at present any very easy connection between Blind Bay and the Wairau. A heavy mountain ridge divides the two, altogether impassable, except in three places. The easiest of these passes, indeed the only one at present practicable for horses or other live-stock, is 50 miles south of Nelson, and enters the upper part of the Wairau Valley at a point 60 miles from Cloudy Bay, making the whole distance from bay to bay 110 miles. Another pass exists about 12 miles south of Nelson, and enters the Wairau 16 or 17 miles below the first-mentioned: but it is one of very considerable difficulty, and at present altogether unavailable. A third, which will probably be the road to the Wairau, enters the mountains a mile northward of Nelson, by the Matai River, which flows through the town; it crosses the upper part of the Pelorus, and enters the Wairau by the Kaituna Valley, three or four miles down the plain, and not above 15 miles from the sea. This pass presents some difficulties, but only such as moderate engineering skill and expenditure would overcome. If it should be adopted, it will bring the best part of the Wairau Plain within about 30 miles of Nelson, and give a degree of identity to the two districts which they can never possess without.

The general character of the soil of this settlement, as in most parts of New Zealand, is lightness. No heavy clays or stiff marls are met with, but the light lands we have, when moderately cultivated, break up as fine as garden ground.

CLIMATE.

Owing to the superior climate, and the absence of many causes of destruction to the seed while in the ground, which occur elsewhere, a high degree of fertility might be expected; and considering the inferior description of much of the cultivation, compared with what is exercised in England, such fertility does appear to exist. The average produce given in the Government Returns for 1845, which does not appear far from the truth, is – wheat, per acre, 24 bushels; barley, 25; oats, 21; potatoes, 6 tons; turnips, 24 tons. To those who have heard of "crack" farms in England giving sixty bushels of wheat to the acre, this may seem a low return; but the average fertility of the wheat land of Great Britain is generally estimated at not more than twenty-four bushels per acre, – exactly the same as is returned here, with inferior modes of agriculture. In a Return made by the Marshal of the State of New York, in 1845, it appears that the average of wheat in that State is only 13 bushels to the acre, of barley 30, and oats not more than 26; and it is stated that the average in Virginia, in Washington's time, was as low. The flax land in New Zealand, with very little labour bestowed upon it, is capable of returning at least forty bushels of wheat to the acre, and good fern land (when properly worked, particularly if manure be used) will probably give little, if any, less. The wire-worm is said to make its appearance in the wet grounds, but from most of the other pests of the husbandman, including the turnip fly, we are entirely free.

It is almost unnecessary to say anything of the climate of Nelson. The extreme salubrity and excellence of that of the whole colony is universally known and admitted. The test which King Charles applied to the English climate, that there were more days in the year when people could be in the open air than anywhere else, applies with considerably more force here. With a very great amount of sunshine, the heat is never excessive, or ever disagreeable; while, with an abundance of rain, there is no continual wet season. The only defect in any part of New Zealand is, that there is too

POPULATION.

much wind to be agreeable; not that it blows harder than it blows on the English coast at times, but it blows hard oftener. In this respect, however, Nelson is, I believe, the most favoured place in the country. The wind, though for about three months in the spring and summer it blows fresh for days together, is seldom violent or tempestuous, and in the winter it blows very little indeed; days and even weeks almost perfectly calm, with brilliant sunshine by day, and magnificent moonlight at night, occurring at that season. In the other settlements of New Zealand, it is not unusual, in extraordinarily fine weather, to hear the observation – "This is Nelson weather," though their own is much above the average of English weather. Of the general mildness of the climate, an idea may be gathered from the fact that the flocks of sheep frequently lamb in mid-winter in the open country; and unless there happens to be an unusually heavy rain or severe frost at the very time of lambing, a very small per centage of losses – perhaps not above five to ten per cent. – will occur. Geraniums, fuchsias, aenotheras, picotees, and other summer flowers of England, continue to blossom in Nelson during the winter months. One peculiarity of the climate may be noticed, which is, that there are in fact only two seasons – the summer, and what we call winter. There are no transition seasons of spring and autumn, or at all events hardly perceptible as such; and their absence is the more observed from the fact, that nearly all the indigenous trees are evergreen, so that there is no periodical fall or renewal of the leaf – a circumstance to be regretted by the admirer of the picturesque, were it not compensated by the fact, that the forests maintain their usual verdure all the winter long.

The population of Nelson in 1848 was 3,090, exclusive of a German settlement which was formed in the year 1844, which, settlement comprises about 100 persons. This, with the increase by births and immigration, will, at the present time, make the population 4,000 for the district, including Wakapuaka, Waimea, Motueka, Moutere, Riwaka, Massacre Bay,

NATIVE POPULATION.

the district of the coal mines, Wairau, and Queen Charlotte's Sound.

Of this number by far the larger portion is engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits; the number of those following handicraft trades being only 209. Indeed, Nelson has been from the commencement a pastoral and agricultural colony. Not being adapted for commercial pursuits, the people wisely turned their attention to the productions of the soil; and, though much smaller in numbers, they have surpassed in this respect the efforts of the more populous neighbouring settlements.

But, like their neighbours, their attention has been chiefly turned to stockfarming, for the reasons enumerated in the preceding chapter. The total quantity of land under cultivation in 1848 was 3,332 acres, being upwards of 1,000 acres more than were cultivated in Wellington. The number of stock of all kinds in Nelson was, in 1848, upwards of 50,000, in about the same proportions as at Wellington; but since the Wairau plains have been added to the settlement, the importation of stock from the Australian colonies have been extensive; and these, together with the natural increase, have by this time more than doubled the pastoral resources of the settlement.

The native population in this settlement, it will be seen, is not considerable, the total number being only 615. They all reside at a considerable distance from the town of Nelson; – one pah or village being about ten miles north (Wakapuaka), another eighteen miles westward (Motueka), and the rest in Massacre Bay, at a distance of fifty miles. They are extremely peaceable and well inclined, and, since the settlement of the land-claims in 1844, have made great progress in agriculture and commerce, having last year nearly 800 acres of land in cultivation, of which 340 were in wheat. The proportion of cultivated land per head is nearly as great as among the Europeans – 770:615 native:: 3,465: 2,867 European. The greater part of the corn grown by them is brought to market; and they are quite up to the importance of holding their stock till

SHREWDNESS OF NATIVES.

toward the close of the year, when prices are high. When the Governor was here in 1846, one of them suggested to him the propriety of prohibiting the importation of flour from Sydney, complaining that it brought down the price of what they grew. Another was debating the price of some barley with a brewer; the brewer said that barley should come down, because labour, was cheaper than it had been; then said the native, 'Your beer must come down too, for you get the barley for less.' They show by such remarks that they understand quite enough of trade to drive a good bargain for themselves, and indeed they seldom if ever fail in getting the best price going for what they have to sell. They are very fond of horses, more for riding than for agricultural purposes; their ploughing having, I believe, been generally done by European teams working for them at 1l. per acre. They will buy nothing but mares, having a great desire to have 'pickaninny' horses of their own. The first foal they had at one of the pahs was carefully put into the enclosure of their church when they were coming over to Nelson for a fortnight. There was no herbage, but they left some kits of raw potatoes with it, forgetting to give it any water. Of course when they returned, their pet was dead, to their great dismay and disappointment. I have not heard of their having any cows or other stock than horses; though at Otaki, in the northern island, I believe the natives have cows, and make good butter. Their social habits will probably prevent their becoming stockmen and shepherds, those employments being of a solitary nature; but they will no doubt grow a large proportion of the corn consumed in, or exported from, the colony. In that employment they will be able to compete with the Europeans, notwithstanding the superior skill of the latter, on account of the command of labour which they possess, having among themselves no wages to pay, and not being affected by the scarcity of the commodity which European agriculturists in colonies so often suffer from.

"The advancement in civilization which these natives have made, is to be attributed entirely to their juxtaposition with

FRIENDLY NATIVES.

European colonists, with the exception of their elementary and religious education, which they appear to have received chiefly from Mr. Ironside, formerly Wesleyan missionary at Cloudy Bay. The example and success of the colonists have stimulated their industry, and led them to imitate their proceedings. It proves in a great degree the wisdom of the scheme devised by the Company for intermixing the two races; and, judging of what has occurred here, no doubt can exist that had not unnecessary obstacles been interposed elsewhere, the same consequence would have followed in every part of the Company's settlements. In Nelson the protector and missionary influence has scarcely been brought to bear upon the natives at all: there has been no protector; and though two missionaries (Church of England and Wesleyan) have been stationed here, yet, having charge of the European population also, and finding it convenient or necessary to reside almost entirely in the town, which the natives only visit occasionally and for short periods, they have in fact exercised scarcely any influence over them. The existence of a good market for their produce, and a supply of European goods purchaseable with it, have been the principal motives to the adoption by them of peaceable and industrious habits; and, living as they do in the midst of an European population engaged in agriculture and other crafts, they have, without any direct instruction, learned for themselves as much as is necessary to enable them to compete with the settlers. I believe that the result may be attributed almost entirely to the absence of that meddlesome spirit on the part of Government which in other settlements took shape in the protectorship; and to the insouciance, or engagements in other perhaps more spiritual cares, of the missionaries stationed here. The natives have been left to the influence of natural motives, and of the good example of a friendly, industrious, and civilized population; and the result is, that they present as favourable a specimen of the capability of the race for civilization as I have anywhere met with. About three years ago (when they were less advanced than they are now), I happened to be at a

THE WAIRAU.

pah in Queen Charlotte's Sound (Okokurry), when several of our Motueka natives, who had been to the northern island, arrived. There were several canoes full of them, and they came on a short visit to the natives resident there. The superiority of the Motueka natives in every particular – countenances, manners, and general appearance – was most remarkable. The Okokurry natives looked really like savages – they were morose, unaccommodating, and unintelligent. The Motueka ones were cheerful, obliging, and vivacious. I know no other cause for the difference, than the intercourse with Europeans which the one enjoyed the advantage of, and to which the other were strangers.

"As the Wairau is now a part of this settlement, it may not be out of place to refer to the number and character of the natives there. A very common impression appears to have existed in England, that the savages who committed the massacre in that district had their homes and habitual residences there; indeed, it is so assumed in more than one of the documents which proceeded from the Government both in England and the colony; and inferences have been drawn from it, unfavourable to the conduct of the sufferers on that occasion. The statement has, however, been often contradicted, and has no foundation. Rauparaha, Rangihaiata, and the others engaged in that affair, are well known to reside permanently and solely on the other side of Cook's Strait, and since that event have never been across to the Wairau. The natives who do reside there (or rather partly there and partly in Port Underwood) are only about fifty souls, consisting of a few of the survivors of the Rangitani, the original possessors of the district, the rest of whom Rauparaha exterminated, and a few of his own tribe the Ngatitoas. They are perfectly pacific, and engaged in cultivating a few acres of the reserve made for them by the present Governor when he purchased the district. Not the slightest apprehension of any annoyance from them is or need be felt by settlers in the Wairau.

"The port for the Wairau district will be at Waitohi, on the

PORT UNDERWOOD.

south side of Queen Charlotte's Sound. The following account of this and other harbours on the southern shore of Cook's Strait, is, for the most part, taken from the report of a committee, appointed to choose the site of a shipping town for the newly granted district.

"The immediate vicinity of Port Underwood to the ocean is the first and obvious advantage of its position, on which it is unnecessary to dilate. The next is its being situated to the southward of Cook's Strait, on which account it may perhaps be looked upon at first sight, as far as position alone is concerned, as the natural outlet for the produce of the Wairau Plain, and the probably much more extensive districts still further to the south. As no harbour exists between Port Underwood and Banks' Peninsula, the northern half of the whole country lying between these two localities may fairly be considered as the natural appendage of the former; and its accessibility, without the necessity of entering the Strait, would be a circumstance, if not counterbalanced by others, greatly in its favour with reference to communication with the part of the country last mentioned. Another advantage, arising from the position of Port Underwood, on which some stress has occasionally been laid, is that which Colonel Wakefield, in his journal, describes as 'the only one it offers over the neighbouring harbours' – viz., 'its vicinity to the whaling-grounds, for the shore parties to run to.' This circumstance probably also made it in former years a favourite harbour for the whale-ships themselves. In either case, the advantage presented is a very temporary and precarious one, as long-continued fishing is well known to cause the whales to abandon, sometimes for many years, the grounds on which it has been carried on. Of late years, each season has been getting worse than the preceding ones in Port Underwood; and, last year, not one whale was caught within its boundaries.

"Port Underwood divides itself into two arms at the upper or northern part. The shores of the main harbour, and of both of these arms, may be described as consisting of a succes-

WATER COMMUNICATION.

sion of coves, formed by spurs from the mountains, descending into the harbour and its branches at nearly right angles to the direction of the latter. As the prevalent winds are nearly up and down the harbour, these spurs of course afford on one side or the other shelter from each wind in turn. But these coves are all of them of small extent, and no one of them could apparently afford shelter for a considerable amount of shipping. The inconvenience arising from vessels being obliged to lie in different coves, or on the opposite side of the harbour to that on which the town would necessarily have to be placed, need hardly be remarked upon. In other particulars of accommodation for shipping and convenience for trade, Port Underwood is a satisfactory harbour enough; the holding-ground in the coves being good, the beach sufficiently shelving for the erection of wharfs at moderate expense, and wood and water to be had in plenty.

"Between Port Underwood and the Wairau districts there is one such communication by water, and one by land. You may send produce down the Wairau river to Cloudy Bay, and so to Port Underwood, the distance being ten miles. But the river has a bar across its mouth, which makes this an operation not to be risked with any wind but one off shore. The north-westerly wind is such a wind. It generally prevails – and then the bar is crossed with safety. But whenever this wind is violent, there is the impossibility, for small vessels certainly, to get into Port Underwood; while nothing but boats, or decked vessels of very small draught, could cross the bar at all. The depth of water on the bar was said by some persons to be eight feet, by others fifteen. What is certain is, that it varies according to the previous weather – a continuance of south-easterly winds raising the bar considerably, while north-westerly gales, or large floods in the Wairau river, probably lower it as much. The delays and risks to be created by this obstacle in the export or import of any goods will, it is evident, be great and expensive.

"The inland path runs from the plain over the spurs be-

WAITOHI, OR NEWTON BAY.

tween the coves just mentioned, and descends to the sea-coast in each of them. Some of our party, as has been said, tried this road, and describe the first hill as excessively steep-indeed, so near a perpendicular in its ascent, that they were obliged to clamber and drag themselves up it by the bushes growing out of its rocky sides. The path then runs along the ridge of the hill, which is narrow and rocky in most parts. It descends to White's Cove, then goes over a much longer hill, though presenting somewhat fewer difficulties, into Robin Hood's Bay. Another ascent and descent takes it into Ocean Bay, in Port Underwood. From Ocean Bay to Guard's Bay, the hill-spur requires steps cut in the footpath here and there, which will give a tolerably correct idea of its steepness.

"Ocean Bay is the first bay or cove within Port Underwood, on the western side. It may contain about a hundred, or one hundred and fifty acres at the outside, of level land. Guard's Cove has a very much smaller quantity. At the head of the western arm there is the appearance (as seen from the hill between the two last-named coves) of a somewhat larger piece of nearly level land; but while the extent even of this is comparatively insignificant, its distance from the Wairau, and the greatly increased difficulties of making a road over all the intervening spurs, put it out of the question as the site of a town in the connection proposed. The two first-named coves, then, are the only ones that could be looked upon as available; but, in the first place, it is tolerably certain that the two together would not afford the requisite quantity of level land; and, further, any town laid out there would be effectually divided into two separate and independent parts by the mountain-spur between them.

"But now let us consider the capabilities of the harbour at Waitohi (which it has been proposed to call Newton Bay), taking the several particulars above-mentioned in the same order as before. If Queen Charlotte's Sound is not so well situated as Port Underwood, as the natural outlet for the produce of the country south of the Straits, it has in the same

QUEEN CHARLOTTE'S SOUND.

degree the advantage of Port Underwood, as an inlet for the products of foreign countries. For all ships coming from the westward, in which most of such products are brought, but especially for those from the Australian colonies, it is preferable, as not requiring the passage of the narrow part of the Straits. The only part of what can properly be considered the Straits which it is necessary to sail through to reach Queen Charlotte's Sound, has this peculiar advantage; that its western coast is formed of a close succession of deep, safe, and easily accessible harbours – Port Hardy, Admiralty Bay, Port Gore, and the Sound itself, the wide mouths of which, like the spaces between the opened fingers of a hand, lie almost at right angles to the direction of the prevalent winds (the south-east and north-west), so at all times to afford the readiest shelter from both.

"The position of Queen Charlotte's Sound with reference to the opposite coast of the Straits – the southern coast of the Northern Island – is a circumstance greatly in its favour. There is no harbour from Wellington all round the coast to Hokianga. The water communication will be easier between the whole of this coast north of Porirua and Queen Charlotte's Sound than between the same coast and Port Nicholson itself, whether south-easterly or north-westerly winds are blowing. Therefore, the fine grazing districts about Manawatu, and to the south of Cape Egmont, so long as the sea continues to be the best communication between them and a seaport, would probably draw much of their supplies, and export much of their produce, from Queen Charlotte's Sound; and the Maori trade of all the coast and district alluded to would naturally be liable to be drawn into the same channel. This, of course, leaves to Port Nicholson the advantage of the regular and certain communication by land, as soon as roads may be made; but till then it may be considered as compensating for the advantage Port Nicholson would, perhaps, have over Queen Charlotte's Sound, in supplying and exporting from the districts to the southward of the Kaikoras at furthest, till equally

NEWTON BAY.

extensive lines of roads be made, or till a town at Banks' Peninsula shall become the natural recipient of the imports and exports of the more southern portion of the last-named districts.

"For facility of ingress and egress, Queen Charlotte's Sound is well known to yield to few harbours, if any, in the world. The only circumstance that makes any particular caution requisite is the set of the tides – the flood to the northern, the ebb to the southern head of the sound. 'In sailing either in or out with little wind,' as Captain Cook says, 'attention must be had to this.' But as the entrance is nine miles wide, this is a difficulty easily avoidable. Its great advantage in this respect is, that it lies, as has been said, at right angles to the direction of the prevailing winds in the Straits.

"But the harbour at Waitohi (Newton Bay) is from twenty to twenty-five miles from the entrance, and the position so far inland, has been mentioned as an objection. That immediate contiguity to the outer seas would be preferable, would perhaps be taken for granted, though to ships from a distance this circumstance is of no great account. To show how slight an objection is this, it is only necessary to consider the character of the sound itself. In the words of the glorious seaman quoted from above, 'It is, at the entrance, three leagues broad, and is a collection of the finest harbours in the world.' 'The tides in the sound,' says Captain Chaffers, who surveyed some of the creeks and bays in the strait some years ago, 'are regular, the soundings from Motuara Island (at the mouth) gradually deepen from seven and eight to thirty and thirty-five fathoms mid-channel. The shores on both sides are bold, and may be approached with safety to one cable's distance. In case of night coming on, good anchorage can be found in the coves on either side of the sound.'

"The water continues deep almost to the head of the sound, and its width diminishes very gradually. It is two or three miles wide for the most part, between the south end of Tory Channel and Newton Bay. The projecting points on the

COL. WAKEFIELD'S OPINION.

opposite sides of the sound at Newton Bay were by every one on board considered to be at least from one mile and three-quarters to two miles apart, and the sound widens again above these points. Then the soundings give twenty-two to twenty-three fathoms.

"With such a breadth and uniform depth of water, with the same abundance of deep and safe coves and harbours, with a singular freedom from rocks, and shoals, and sandbanks, every one will agree, it may be supposed, that the upper part of the sound, even above Newton Bay, deserves, as well as the lower, the terms in which Colonel Wakefield, in his excellently written journal, describes the sound in general. 'On the whole,' says he, 'considering the position and capabilities of Queen Charlotte's Sound, whether with a view to its becoming a port for homeward-bound vessels to take in cargo and provisions, a safe channel of communication between the western part of the Straits and Port Nicholson and the eastern coast, or as a situation for docks and ship-building, it is of the first importance, and cannot be spoken of in too high terms.'

"For a town site, the land at the head of this bay presents all the requisite capabilities in a most satisfactory degree. Between the bay and the valley at the back spreads a flat, which contains between two hundred and three hundred acres of land, at the most moderate computation. A little river winds through it, which, though not navigable for boats for many yards above its mouth, may be considered sufficient to supply a town with fresh water all the year round. Two or three other small brooks were still running in the midsummer months, in which your committee's visit was paid. There is plenty of timber for building and fuel in the wooded valley behind, and on most of the neighbouring hills; and the flat is sufficiently high in most places to make drainage easy. The water frontage strictly belonging to the town site is not very considerable, but may extend to a quarter of a mile in length, the best part of it being formed by a low abrupt bank, on which the town flat terminates in the middle of the head of the

MILTON BAY.

bay. A little creek, or lagoon, on the east side of this, is separated from the bay itself by a narrow spit or bank of mud, which boats might pass at high water. The shore round this might be included in the water frontage, which, however, might be indefinitely extended by building at the foot of the hills on each side the head of the bay, where, as has been said, are from four to five fathoms water a boat's length off shore.

"But all these latter advantages are doubled by the existence of another bay or cove in the immediate neighbourhood of the one just described. This cove, which it has been proposed to call Milton Bay, lies a little to the north-east of it, and is separated from it by a narrow neck or peninsula of hills, joined to the main land by a level isthmus. The level spreads round the heads of both bays, running about three miles in length, by half a mile in breadth, from the top of one bay to that of the other, and losing itself in the Waitohi and Tua Marina Pass. There is, in fact, one extensive town-site abutting on two bays. Milton Bay is in itself also an excellent harbour, though more open to the sound than the other; the soundings are as regular, the water generally as deep. The only circumstance that makes it inferior to Newton Bay or Waitohi being, first, that the water shoals more gradually in the former, than in the latter, so that the three and a half and four fathoms depth, which is found a hundred yards from the shore in Newton Bay, is three hundred yards at least off shore in Milton Bay; and, secondly, that the bay itself is three miles further from the Wairau Plain. The first circumstance would make the throwing out of wharfs into deep water three times as expensive as it would be in Newton Bay. The second would increase the expense of the road, and the distance to carry produce; although the additional tract consisting of firm and level land, the increased expense of the road would be but trifling."

On this head Mr. Bell has added the following: –

"The proceedings in connection with the new town at Newton

THE PELORUS.

Bay (Waitohi) have been reported from time to time, and it only remains to say that the survey is just completed, and that the selections will take place about the middle of May. The importance of Newton Bay as the best port for the Wairau, and of the whole of the magnificent harbour of Queen Charlotte's Sound, has been so often pointed out that I would not have again referred to it had it not been for the feeling which at one time seemed to exist (as I believe on mistaken grounds) in favour of the Pelorus Sound.

"The Pelorus is a place hardly known, shallowing very much at the head, and of a not easy access from the Northern Island in rough weather; cannot be fetched even from Porirua in a north-wester; lies at the head of Admiralty Bay, with, islands and reefs to pass before it can be reached; and can never (as a glance at the map will show) be a calling place on the way to and from Wellington. Now, nothing is more common than for vessels leaving Wellington for Sydney or Hobart Town, with a north-wester, to cross over to Queen Charlotte's Sound, and wait for the south-easter, against which, if it blew strong, they could not have got out of Port Nicholson; and this is one of the circumstances that give the Sound such an advantage over the Pelorus. A town in this last place would be of no use to Nelson, and would never grow into importance itself; a town in the Sound was never pretended to be of use to Nelson; but would certainly become, in the course of years, one of the places of greatest consequence in the islands. Queen Charlotte's Sound is an estuary of immense extent, possessing numberless harbours with deep water, nearly all of which are land-locked, and encompassed by densely wooded hills; and in which vessels of any size can drop, and take in the timber, to which the hands of men will one day give a value. It is a harbour of refuge from the gales which sweep the coast of the North Island from Cape Egmont to Palliser head; is perfectly well known to all mariners in these seas, and its shores will, in the sure hereafter, receive the produce of the whole west coast of the Northern Island, from Mokau to

MR. WARD'S LETTERS.

Otaki, comprising millions of acres of level land, the most fertile and lovely in all New Zealand. There is no harbour in that long coast line save the New Plymouth roadstead (which is, by the way, far better than usually supposed, as my long Report upon its merits satisfied the Directors), and the half-dozen river mouths, navigable for small craft only: but one wind, blowing the greater part of the year, will bring these small craft, without difficulty or danger, into Queen Charlotte's Sound, and save them the passage through the Straits, so dreaded by all who hate rough weather, with the inevitable nuisance of a five hours' beat into Port Nicholson afterwards. I know every inch of the coast line I refer to, and have been through Cook's Strait and in and out of Wellington Harbour more than five-and-twenty times; I have, moreover, poked about the islands and bays between Nelson and Cape Campbell, and I know that, blow north-west or south-east, a vessel that can hold her own can get into Queen Charlotte's Sound when she can get nowhere else in the whole length of the Straits. I never had but one opinion, and that was, that on the shores of the Sound would the capital of New Zealand be founded. Wellington will always hold the trade of the eastern coast of the North Island, and will divide the trade of the east coast of the South Island, below the Kaikouras, with the harbour of Port Victoria, Otago, and others; but it will not keep against Queen Charlotte's Sound the commerce of the immense tracts on the west coast of the Northern Island. And if ever a population be located in this colony, such as shall require a site for a capital worth the name, it will be fixed in a spot as superior to most others in its truly centrical position, its climate, and its commercial capabilities, as it is (except by Taranaki) unrivalled for picturesque beauty."

We will add to these remarks, three letters formerly addressed by Mr. J. Ward, long a settler at Nelson, to the author. They will be found full of that practical information which forms the best guide to the intending emigrant.

"I will give you a short outline of the expenses that must

RENT OF LAND.

necessarily be incurred in order to commence with a farm of fifty acres at Nelson; it may vary a little in the other settlements; I only mention Nelson because I know nothing of the other settlements personally. The fifty acres of land at Nelson would cost you, to buy it – if near town, or within five or six miles of it, and being good flax land – 150l. per section of fifty acres; if inferior land, within that distance, 50l. to l00l.; if at a greater distance, less in proportion, especially bad land, which at a distance from town is unsaleable; no person would have it as a gift to cultivate it: quality and situation are the two main things to be attended to in selecting land in New Zealand; but without buying the land it can be rented at a low rent, with a purchasing clause inserted in the lease, so that the tenant can buy it at any time within seven years at a given price, if he chooses. This is very convenient, and many sections are let at Nelson in this way. The rent of land varies according to the quality and situation – some sections are let at 2s. 6d. per acre per annum, some at 5s., and some 6s., for the first seven years; but it is a general rule for the tenant to have it rent-free for the first year, and sometimes for two years; this is regulated by the apparent difficulties and expense that the land offers to get it in a state of cultivation. I will enclose my estimate of the first year's expense, so that you may form some idea what you can do in the Colony; you must recollect the first year is the most difficult and expensive – during that, you will have all to buy and nothing to sell; but after the first year the scale will be turned; you will have plenty to sell and little to buy.

ESTIMATE ALLUDED TO IN ABOVE.

Estimate of the necessary expenses to commence a farm at Nelson, New Zealand – fifty acres at 5s. per acre per annum, for seven years, first year's rent free: –

Wooden house large enough for five or six people
(A good substantial brick house of this size, 30l.)
£15 0 0

Four working bullocks, 40l.; plough, 61.; harrows and roller, 5l.; cart, 12l.; gear and small tools, 7l.
70 0 0

Carry forward
£85 0 0

FARMING ESTIMATES.

Brought forward..
£85 0 0

(Two horses will cost 50l., and the harness 6l. more; bullocks
are the best until the land is in a state of cultivation.)

Fencing a tea acre field.
10 0 0

(It would be cheapest to fence the whole in at once, 25l.)

Seed for three acres wheat, 2 1/4 bushels to the acre, at 5s. a bushel,
say seven bushels.
1 15 0

Seed for four acres barley, three bushels to the acre, at 4s.
1 4 0

Seed for half acre potatoes.
0 15 0

Garden seeds and plants.
0 5 0

One cow, a good one, 12l.; a few pigs and fowls, 5l..
17 0 0

Housekeeping expenses for three of you for twelve
months ..£50 0 0

(After the first six months, you could have your
own vegetables, eggs, and fowls, if you go the
right way to work.)

Furnishing the house, and incidental expenses. 20 0 0

70 0 0

£185 19 0

(Suppose it takes 200l., as I have allowed nothing for accidents
or breakages – you may have a bullock die, or break the
plough or cart.)

At the end of the year your account would stand thus: –
Value at the end
of first year.

Crops, three acres wheat, thirty bushels per acre, allowing the
straw to pay expenses, at 5s. per bushel
£22 10 0

Crops, two acres barley, forty bushels per acre, straw will more
than pay expenses at 4s. per bushel.
16 0 0

Crops, half acre potatoes, four tons at 2l. per ton
8 0 0

Cow and calf, 15l.; pigs and poultry, 10l.; sold butter and milk,
6l.; two pigs, 1l.; twenty fowls at 9d., 15s.
32 15 0

Bullocks, cart, plough, &c, allow 5 per cent, for wear and tear.
66 10 0

House and goods..
30 0 O

Improvements, ten acres land fenced, 10l.; and six acres got in a
good state of cultivation, 24l.
34 0 0

Improvements on four acres land, cleared, ploughed, once har-
rowed and rolled, at 2l.
8 0 0

Improvements by putting up cow-shed, pig-sty, fowl-house, and
tool-house, 61. – loss for materials; boards, 1l. 12s.; nails, 6 lbs.
at 7d., 3s, 6d. – 1l. 15s. 6d.
4 4 6

£221 19 6

FARMING ESTIMATES

"I have supposed you to effect these improvements yourself. Although this may not appear to be a very glowing account, yet in reality it is a very favourable one, and better than it will prove to be, except you are industrious, and everything is looked after well as it should be, and the land must be good. I see there has been 96l. 5s. 6d. earned within the year – viz., by produce and increase of stock, I7l. 15s.; nett produce of crops, 42l. 16s.; improvements, 4Ol. But you must bear in mind that you have much better prospects for the second year: you would be able to get twenty acres under crop the second year; the five and a half acres would take but very little cultivating for the second crop; you would have four times as much produce for sale; and your expenses would not be one-fourth as much as the first year. At the end of the second year your accounts would stand thus: –

Value

Proceeds of crops, sold and unsold – viz., ten acres wheat, at 7l
per acre; eight acres of barley, at 8l. per acre; two acres of
potatoes, at 12l. per acre
£158 0 0

Cows and pigs, increase since last year, 12l.; produce sold, 12l.;
value last year, 25l.
49 0 0

Bullocks, cart, &c, same as last year, having laid out 10l. in
repairs..
66 10 0

House and goods, 30l.; improvements on the land, 40l.; con tinued
same as first year, 40l.
111 0 0

£384 10 0

Less for expenses – viz., materials and building a barn, 15l.;
housekeeping, 20l.; rent, 12l. 10s.; sundries, 10l. – less ex-
penses for the year
57 10 0

Total value at the end of second year
£327 0 0

"I have estimated these expenses from actual experience at Nelson, and I have only to say that the prices would be different in a new settlement – the bullocks, cart, plough, and seed would be dearer; then, in return, your butter, eggs, and milk would sell for double as much, and you would get a better price for your wheat and potatoes. If you could buy two or

RATES AND TAXES.

three cows at the commencement, it would increase your income considerably; the young cows would soon make you increase the size of your dairy, and the young steers would soon be fit to assist the old ones, or you could increase the size of your farm when you had sufficient young stock to work it; – this would cost you but very little, as you would have only to buy another plough, and two yokes and bows.

"J. WARD."

"DEAR SIR, – I am glad to hear that my letter gave general satisfaction to yourself and friends; but, with respect to the natives, it never struck me to give you a detailed account of them. As for being afraid of them, it is out of the question. You have no occasion to trouble your head about the natives. There are but very few natives on the middle island, and those that are there are just as good and as well behaved as the white people. Where my brother-in-law (Captain F.) lives, about twenty miles from Nelson, there are a few natives – fifty or sixty – yet my sister is not the least afraid, although Captain F. is from home for two or three days together. They have never had a lock or bolt to their door since they have been there. I never locked or bolted my own door, for the four years I was there, except it was when we were all from home; so that, after this, do not let any fear of the natives enter your head.

"You ask me about the rates and taxes: to this I can also give you a satisfactory answer. The revenue is collected by a duty of ten or twelve per cent, on goods imported; spirits, 5s. per gallon; tobacco, 2s. per lb.; guns, powder, shot, and other munitions of war, 30 per cent.; licenses for auctioneers and publicans, 30l. or 40l. each, and all this together brings in nearly sufficient to pay the Government expenses. There are no poor-rates, church-rates, or assessed taxes of any kind; tea is from 2s. to 3s. per lb.; sugar, moist, 3d. to 4d.; clothes are nearly as cheap as in England. I would not advise you to take many goods with you for sale; it is very well for a shopkeeper to take his own stores, but you will want your money soon

TIME FOR SOWING.

after you get there, and the goods that you have brought may be selling at a less price than you gave for them in England; therefore, if you go to an old settlement, take but very few things with you, only what you will want for your own use. Do not take any tables, chairs, or any lumbering goods of this kind – take small goods only that can be packed, and that will not be damaged by being knocked about a little, such as cups, plates, knives and forks, and all small household furniture. Take two hammers, gimlets, saws, some reap-hooks and scythes and the iron-work belonging to two scythe-sheaths; some rubbers; also, if convenient, take some nails – 1-inch, l 1/2-inch, and 2-inch board-nails, most of the latter, and some hinges for doors and gates.

"With respect to your brother, the best thing he can do is to stop and assist you for three years, and you find him everything; and with his 200l. let him buy 150 sheep and two or three cows: if you are in a bad place for keeping sheep, you can mark them, and let some one look after them for him, by giving the person one-third of the profit and increase in lieu of wages; and your brother can go himself once a week or fortnight, and see that they are all right, so that by the end of the three years he would have a good flock of sheep; and the cows you could look to and milk at home, and give your brother some pocket-money for the milk, as cows are worth on the average 4s. a week when let out for their milk; the increase, of course, would be your brother's. And you could not do a better thing with your money, after you have provided all things for the farm, than lay it out in sheep and cattle.

"The best time to sow wheat is May or June, but it is sometimes sown in July, August, and September. Barley can be sown at any time, from May to 1st January; potatoes, from 1st August to 1st February; cabbages, turnips, and those kind of things, all the year round. You say you should like to take out your man with you. If he is an industrious man and a good work-man, he would be sure to do well out there – good farm labourers and shepherds are sure to do well; but, take my

ADVICE TO SMALL CAPITALISTS.

advice, do not take him out on your own account. If he is willing to go, let him go; he will better his condition, there is no doubt – but do not enter into an agreement with him to employ him for so long, at so much wages. I have seen enough of this. Although you speak very highly of him, yet do not make any special agreement with him. You can tell him you will do the best you can for him, and perhaps give him constant employment so long as he wants any; but if you bind yourself down to give him certain wages when you get there, most likely there will be discontent; for if his wages are less than the current wages, he will want to leave; and if the wages are more, then you will want to get rid of him. Therefore, let him go free. If he has 65l., he would not require to work very long for any person, except it was to please himself. However, as you cannot show him this, I will enclose a paper for him, that he can read at his pleasure and show to his friends; and then he will be able to see what he can do in New Zealand.

"At present, I cannot advise you what part of New Zealand to go to; but if I were going out now, I should go to Nelson for farming purposes, or New Plymouth may, perhaps, be as good; to Wellington for mercantile pursuits; to Auckland for a storekeeper, or for a situation; to Otago, Port Cooper, or Wairau, for sheep-keeping.

"I believe I have given you every necessary information; and, in conclusion, I have only to say, that for an industrious man with a small capital, there is no place in the world like New Zealand. The climate is good and healthy, the land is good, and everything grows and does well there. The colonists are generous and hospitable, and altogether they are a first-rate colony of your own countrymen. Believe me to be, yours truly, JOHN WARD."

{Paper alluded to in above.)

"ADVICE TO A PERSON GOING TO NEW ZEALAND WITH 60l. OR 100l.

"1. Endeavour to go out free if you can. Make inquiries

COWS AND POULTRY.

of the New Zealand Company, and try to get out as an emigrant. If you cannot go out free, the passage will cost you 18 guineas in the Company's ships.

"2. Be careful on board ship not to mix up with any quarrels. Keep yourself clean and respectable; the voyage will soon be over. As soon as you can after you go ashore, when you have had a little time to look about you, see if you can buy five or ten acres of land; it will cost you 2Ol. or 30l., perhaps a little more, in the Colony. I do not know whether the New Zealand Company would sell such a small quantity in England or not; but, if they would, it would be much cheaper in England, and besides they would send you out free. But do not buy too much land at first; reserve some money to buy a cow or two, and some pigs and fowls. Having bought your land, build your house in the most convenient place for wood and water. The house would cost you 5l. or 6l, if you assist yourself. Then commence cultivating half an acre of ground, and put in some potatoes and cabbages, &c. Buy a cow or two if you have the money, one or two pigs and some fowls; and if you run short of money at any time, you can work for other people – there is always plenty of work – and do not sell the cow nor yet the calf. The cow will cost you 10l. or 12l.; but then she will bring you in, for butter and milk, 10s. or 12s. a week. If this should be in a new settlement, the cow will cost you a little more perhaps; but then you will get double as much for the milk and butter. The cow will cost you nothing to keep; she will get her own food on the uncultivated land. You will have to fetch her in night and morning; but, if you keep her in at night, you must turn her out early in the morning. The calf will cost you nothing until it becomes a cow; the fowls will lay an extraordinary quantity of eggs, if you give them a little Indian corn once a day; your pigs will get their own food; and if you want to fatten them, put them up and give them some Indian corn for five or six weeks. Be sure and attend to your cow after she has calved; for, if all is attended to as it should be, she will have another calf in twelve months,

PROGRESS OF CROPS.

so that, in twelve months, the increase from one cow would make up 19l.; – that is, the cow 12l., one calf twelve months old, 5l., and one calf five days old, 2l. – all this in addition to the butter and milk – therefore keep your eye on the cattle.

"June, July, and August is the time to sow wheat. Get an acre of land cleared as soon as you can; dig up the flax, cut and burn the fern, and get a farmer to plough it for you if you can. It will cost ll. an acre to get it ploughed, but, if you have not got the money, make an agreement with the farmer to do so many yards of fencing for him, or work for him ten days or a fortnight: that may suit you both – it would be quicker than you could dig it up yourself. Try all you can to get in an acre of wheat the first year; when your wheat is in, set to work again directly, and try to get in an acre of barley. Of course, once ploughing will not do; you must dig it and rake it about, and you will be sure to get a good crop. Barley will do, if sown before Christmas, but the best time is July or August. Potatoes must be set in November or December, but early potatoes may be set in August. Turnips, onions, cabbages, and those kind of things, may be set all the year round. When all your crops are in – which they ought to be by the 1st of January – set to work again, and get some more ground ready to sow wheat in May; so that the second year you will be able to sow double the quantity you did the first, and your expenses will not be half so much when you grow all your own food. By the end of the second year, you will have some steers grown up fit to work, so that you will have to look out for a plough and harrows, &c.; and in a little time, if you persevere, you will soon want to increase the size of your farm. Take out a few tools with you, such as a hammer, saw, gimlet, reaphooks, rubbers, and choppers to cut wood. My object in writing this is to give an industrious man going out to New Zealand such advice that he may profit by my own experience and information.

"If you have not already made up your mind to go to New Zealand, consider the matter over calmly, do nothing important

THRIVING SETTLERS.

in haste; in the first place, consider your present place and prospects where you are; if you are well off, and comfortable stop where you are, for New Zealand is a long way off, and there are some difficulties to encounter; but if your prospects are bad – if you cannot see your way clear without slavery and starvation, then I can safely say you would be ten times better off in New Zealand, where, if you are able and willing to work, to keep yourself sober, you would in a little time be surrounded with abundance of bacon and eggs, bread, butter, milk and cream, puddings, fowls, and all kinds of vegetables. There is no stinting there, 'cut and come again' is the order of the day; this, I can assure you, is an absolute fact. I know plenty of men in Nelson, who came out as labourers, without a penny, who are now very well off; some of them have twelve or fourteen head of cattle, worth on the average 7l. or 8l. a head, and a fifty-acre farm, not their own (that is, only leased), with a great part under cultivation; they use their own cart, plough, harrows, and other farming implements. I saw, in one man's house, six great sides of bacon and fourteen hams; he had a nice cottage, five acres of land all his own, and cultivated, and twenty sheep worth at least ll. a head, besides three or four cows, pigs, and things; but, understand me rightly, all the people who went out there have not done so well as this; some have done badly, but mostly through their own folly or want of industry; there is not the least fear in the world but that an industrious man will do well in New Zealand.

"I have written the following directions, that a person going to New Zealand may know how to act: – In the first place, you must endeavour to go out free; if all goes right, and you know when the ship is going to sail, prepare yourself in time for going on board, sell all your lumbering and useless goods, and pack up safely all useful small household goods, such as cups and plates, &c, and lash the boxes well with strong cord, and be in London, or at the appointed place, in time, and mind and do not let the ship sail without you; after making all these preparations – all your provisions will be served out to you on

HOW TO PROCEED.

board the ship – you can take a little butter and three or four pounds of cheese with you, you will find it useful on board; the voyage will soon be over, but two or three days before you get to New Zealand, collect your things together, ready to go on shore, and do not leave them till the ship is at anchor, for then all will be in a bustle on board, and you will not find half your things. If you are a labourer or a shepherd, you must go to work as soon as you can, you will find plenty of employment; you must get up a cottage as soon as you can, it will cost you about 4l. or 5l.; but the materials, wood and nails, will only cost 2l., and if you can get a friend to help you for a day or two you could put it up yourself, then you must assist your friend in return; people in the Colony are very ready to assist one another. When your house is up, buy some fowls and pigs as soon as you can, and when you have sufficient money buy a cow, it will cost you nothing to keep; the cow will bring you in 10s. a week if attended to well, and do not sell the calf; even if you are short of money; you will be able to get plenty of work at good wages. If you cannot buy a spot of land, rent four or five acres, you can get it for 4s. or 5s. an acre, and the first year rent free – flax land is the best land, that is, land that flax is growing on; do not choose stony bad land. Be cautious and do not make a mistake by trying to get on too fast at first; begin and go on steady; put in some potatoes and vegetables in the garden, as soon as you can; – labourers get the afternoon on Saturdays to themselves, so you will have plenty of time to grow your own vegetables; tea and sugar is cheap in New Zealand – tea, 2s. to 3s. per lb.; sugar, 3d. to 4d. per lb.; clothes are as cheap as in England, the climate is so good that you don't want half the clothes you would at home. Mind and keep yourself steady, and persevere for two or three years, and you will be well off.

"J. WARD."

2 For a portion of this account of Nelson, the author is indebted to a despatch from Mr. Fox, late New Zealand Company's agent at that place.

CHAPTER X. NEW PLYMOUTH.

THE TARANAKI DISTRICT.

CHAPTER X.

NEW PLYMOUTH.

The Taranaki district – Formation of the Plymouth Company – Productiveness of the settlement – Want of a harbour – Society of New Plymouth – Population – Institutions – High price of land – Mineral treasures – Recent letter – The natives – Crops – Prices.

THE district of Taranaki, which comprises the country around Mount Egmont, has with justice been termed "the garden of New Zealand," and whether we regard the serenity of its. climate, the fertility of its soil, or the extent of land available for the agriculturist, it is surpassed by no other locality in either island, though in extent alone, the New Plymouth district must yield to the huge plains which reach from Banks' Peninsula to the southern extremity of the Middle Island.

The attention of the early settlers was first drawn to the Taranaki district by the lamentations of the Port Nicholson natives, who a few years only previous to the colonization of New Zealand, had been driven from their former homes by Te Whero Whero, the chief of the powerful Waikato tribes. By this chief, Taranaki was regarded as a hunting ground, whenever his propensities for cruelty and cannibalism urged him to harass the wretched inhabitants – his game being men instead of animals. Harassed by his constant incursions – for he never destroyed more than would satiate his bloodthirstiness, carefully preserving sufficient for the ensuing season's excursion, – the natives were persuaded, with much difficulty, to evacuate their cherished locality and to fight their way southward, where they

FORMATION OF THE PLYMOUTH COMPANY.

might find a locality beyond the power of their tormentor. Their adviser was Mr. Richard Barrett, who subsequently afforded efficient aid to Colonel Wakefield in the acquisition of the territory now in the possession of the New Zealand Company. Mr. Barrett having defeated Te Whero Whero in the last attack made by that chief, the latter retired for a short time to his own district, to recruit his forces, and to devise such means as should utterly annihilate the tribes from whom he had received a check so unexpected. This interval was taken advantage of by Mr. Barrett to evacuate the place, and to make a rapid retreat southward; the retreating natives were, however, intercepted at Wanganui, another fight ensuing, in which Te Whero Whero was again defeated, and, after various vicissitudes, the fugitive tribes settled in Port Nicholson and its vicinity, the feeble inhabitants of which locality fled at the approach of their invaders, compelling the master of a vessel lying in their harbour to carry them to the Chatham Islands, where they in their turn hold the aborigines in abject slavery to this day. Such was the state of the native tribes previous to the colonization of the islands.

The attention of Colonel Wakefield was speedily drawn by the Port Nicholson natives to the rich district from which they had been driven, numerous requests being made of him for a passage in his ship, that, to use their own expressions, "they might once more look upon the land of their fathers." This, of course, could not be complied with, but on visiting Taranaki, he found that the glowing accounts of the natives had not been exaggerated. The representations which he made home respecting the district led to a company being formed at Plymouth for the purpose of occupying Taranaki, and with such vigour were their measures carried out, that a considerable colony, composed for the most part of gentlemen from the south of England, with a numerous body of Devon and Cornish peasants, was speedily on its way to Taranaki, where amidst all the past troubles of the Colony they have remained, prosperous and increasing, nor do we ever remember one single instance of

PRODUCTIVENESS OF THE SETTLEMENT.

complaint from any, whilst the commendations of both district and climate abound, from those of the humblest settler to the merited eulogiums of the Bishop of New Zealand.

New Plymouth, though a small settlement in comparison with others, was the first in New Zealand, not only to feed itself, but to export its own produce. While the commercial settlements of Wellington and Auckland were importing corn from Sydney and the West coast of South America, New Plymouth was exporting corn to both. Like Nelson, New Plymouth owed nothing to the expenditure caused by the troops, which have been so extensively employed in the other settlements; it was isolated from the disturbed districts, and not a single soldier was necessary for its defence. The inhabitants having no resources of this nature, and but few of a commercial kind beyond the export of their surplus produce, steadily applied themselves to agriculture and sheep-farming, and with such success that a poor or a disappointed man is scarcely to be found amongst them, – every man literally living "under his own vine and fig tree."

The New Plymouth people are well aware of the productive powers of their own settlement. When the Canterbury Settlement was first projected, it was the recommendation of the bishop that it should be located at New Plymouth, but the committee of the Canterbury Association decided otherwise. On this a New Plymouth settler shrewdly remarked – "It is no matter, wherever they may settle, we shall have the pleasure and the profit of feeding them till they can run alone, and thus find another market for our rapidly-increasing surplus produce." And it is a fact that this, the least of the older settlements, has for many years past fed the larger, there being no limit to its productiveness, but want of small capitalists to reclaim new lands.

Testimonies to the capabilities of this favoured district are abundant – one or two will suffice, as carrying an authority not to be disputed. Sir George Grey, the present governor of New Zealand, thus spoke of it in a despatch to the Government –

WANT OF A HARBOUR.

"I have never, in any part of the world, seen such extensive tracts of fertile and unoccupied land as at New Plymouth." The Bishop, in his journal of 1848, states – "No one can speak of the soil or scenery of New Zealand till he has seen both the natural beauties and the ripening harvest of Taranaki." Dieffenbach, in his travels, states – "The whole district of Taranaki, as far as I have seen, rivals any in the world in fertility, beauty, and fitness for becoming the dwelling-place of civilized European communities." And again – "In future times, this picturesque valley (Waiwakaio), as well as Mount Egmont and the smiling open land at its base, will become as celebrated for their beauty as the Bay of Naples, and will attract travellers from all parts of the globe." Mr. Fox, the successor of Colonel Wakefield, also thus writes to the New New Zealand Company – "Of the capabilities of the district, in an agricultural point of view, it would be difficult to speak too highly. I was much struck with the fertility of the soil. Some idea of it may be formed from the fact that thirty-five acres of grass and white clover, during last year, carried nearly 300 sheep for a twelvemonth in excellent condition – a quantity, I believe, double to what the best pastures in England will carry."

The drawback to the settlement is the want of a harbour, as usually understood by a land-locked bay. The roadstead is, however, an excellent one, though for three months in the year requiring a vessel to be ready for sea, in the event of a sudden north-west gale. At all other periods of the year the roadstead is as safe as are any of the harbours in the Colony; whilst in the dangerous season, the opposite side of the Strait affords harbours of the finest description in abundance, a few hours sufficing to place a vessel in safety, the very gale which compelled them to quit their anchor becoming a fair wind for gaining a port of shelter; the southern shore of Cook's Strait forming a continuous chain of such harbours, the most easily approached being Port Hardy, and the far-famed series of havens forming Queen Charlotte's Sound.

SOCIETY OR NEW PLYMOUTH.

With this want of a land-locked harbour, it will be long before New Plymouth becomes a place of any considerable commercial consequence, nor is it desirable that it should be so. The land is the true wealth of the colonists, and to this they have wisely and solely directed their attention, reaping their reward long before those settlements which have for the most part depended on commerce. Not that the roadstead of New Plymouth is unsuited to the purposes of commerce; on the contrary, there are many ports in the British dominions, which are of great commercial consequence, to which access is of tenfold more difficulty than the port of Taranaki. No one, for instance, who knows Madras, would for a moment take into account the difficulty of landing at New Plymouth. Neither would the seaman who has rode out a gale of wind at the Cape of Good Hope, where safety depends altogether on the strength of the ship's cables – escape, in the event of these failing, being next to impossible – make any difficulty of the worst position in which he could be placed at New Plymouth. When the settlement has attained that commercial standing to which its rapidly increasing exports will, at no distant date, entitle it, we shall hear no more of the drawbacks to what is, in reality, an excellent anchorage; and when it shall have become rich enough to improve the natural facilities for forming an artificial harbour at comparatively a trifling expense, there will be an end to the fancied difficulties of the Taranaki roadstead. Still, in the present state of the settlement, the settler will do well to bear in mind, that it would be unwise to form an establishment at New Plymouth for other than agricultural or pastoral purposes; and he may also bear in mind, that in no part of the Colony will his reasonable expectations be more surely fulfilled, or his exertions more bountifully rewarded.

Like Nelson, the society of New Plymouth is of a superior order. The commercial ports of any colony partake in no slight degree of too many of the characteristics of Portsmouth or Wapping: these are inseparable from them, and their evil influences extend, more or less, to no inconsiderable portion of

POPULATION. – INSTITUTIONS.

the population. The party squabbles, too, which invariably characterize a mixed and heterogeneous population, such as is usually found in great colonial seaports, render them anything but desirable localities for the quiet agriculturist; and the better prices which he obtains, in consequence of his vicinity to a seaport, scarcely compensate for the interruptions to progress and the temptations to non-progress which so frequently beset him.

Though the population of the New Plymouth settlement scarcely reaches 2,000, its social institutions are very excellent. The means for religious worship are ample and of great efficiency, as regards the various denominations of Christians, who here work together in a harmony not usually found amidst sectarianism. The educational resources of the place are equally excellent, and no man, other than wilfully, can complain that his children are out of the reach of instruction. The only useless social institution is the jail, which happily stands rather in terrorem than in usum, nor, judging from the character of the inhabitants, does it seem likely to be applied to any other use at present.

The settlement, though in point of climate and soil, unquestionably the finest in New Zealand, has been much neglected. It was originally founded by a body of Devonshire and Cornish gentlemen, and to them it has been chiefly indebted for its present inhabitants. On the cessation of the Plymouth Company, it was turned over to the New Zealand Company, by whom it has been unaccountably neglected. One of their first measures was to raise the price of its waste lands, thus practically prohibiting emigration to it. A restoration of the original price – now that the power of this is in the hands of the Government – would be a boon to the settlement which would speedily produce a marked result.

But notwithstanding this neglect, New Plymouth was the first of the New Zealand settlements to export its surplus produce: and this, years before the other settlements had raised adequate supplies for their own consumption. They, in fact, imported what New Plymouth could not consume. This

HIGH PRICE OF LAND.

speaks volumes for the fertility of its soil and climate, as well as for the enterprise of its inhabitants.

The present check to the settlement is the price of its lands that having been raised by the late New Zealand Company to 2l. per acre. This is a drawback, notwithstanding that the land there is better worth two pounds than in some other settlements one. But as the colony is now situated, without the possibility of expending any portion of the proceeds in emigration, the price of 1l. is preposterous. It matters little how high a price is paid for waste lands in colonies, provided this price is strictly and honestly laid out in providing emigrant labour; if this be done, the higher the price the more valuable is the land to the purchaser. Not in Mr. Wakefield's sense of the only object of a high price being to prevent the poor labourer from getting a cottage and a little land of his own; but because, with abundance of labour, which can only be procured by a high price for waste lands, those lands are sooner brought into a profitable state of cultivation, it being, therefore, actually cheaper to the purchaser to give a high price than a low one – the land being of such quality as to warrant the price demanded.

We should be glad to see the Government at home, now that the matter is in their hands, revert back, in the case of New Plymouth, to selling the lands of the settlement at one pound an acre, returning seventy-five per cent, to the purchaser, provided he were a bona fide emigrant, but not otherwise. It need entail no trouble whatever on the Government, if the Land and Emigration Commissioners would only pay the seventy-five per cent, to the shipbroker on certificate of the actual departure of the emigrant and his labourers – if the surplus be sufficient for that purpose – to the colony.

It may be said that such a recommendation as this would be unjust to the Canterbury and other associations which have fixed high prices for their waste lands. It would be nothing at all of the kind: their high prices are to provide, besides labour, a number of social and ecclesiastical institutions which the New Plymouth people do not want, having already provided them-

MINERAL TREASURES.

selves with them at their own expense. The old colonies ought not to stand still whilst new experiments are being tried. This would be injustice if we will. But setting aside this argument, there is another which is unanswerable. The first founders of the New Plymouth settlement went there on the understanding that the land was to be sold at the lowest price of the Wakefield system, and a great injustice was committed when the price was raised, as the purchase of lands was thereby stopped, and production prevented to a great extent, thus taking out of the pockets of the original settlers sums which now would have been in them had the price of lands remained as at first, with its emigration and consequently still larger production.

Were we again to emigrate to New Zealand – an event by no means impossible – this should be the colony of our choice. We would make this choice not more for the purpose of shunning the intestine broils of the larger settlements, – a state of society almost inherent in colonial communities of any magnitude – than for the more certain field which New Plymouth displays for agricultural pursuits. As a commercial settlement it possesses no advantages for the emigrant desirous of engaging in commerce; but for the agricultural emigrant it possesses advantages which he will find nowhere else, even in New Zealand; unlimited power of production, with less than the average trouble and labour, and a certain market at good prices. If these are the elements of success, they will in few places in any of our colonies be found in more certain abundance than in New Plymouth. Confident we are, that no one will adopt our advice upon this point, with any danger on our part of being accused of having misled him, provided his object is agricultural, in the society of many of the best informed and most gentlemanly men of the whole colony.

New Plymouth has, too, its mineral treasures in the shape of a highly productive magnetic iron sand, which lines the coast for many miles. Ironmasters in England declare the iron smelted from it to be equal to that of Sweden or Russia, and if smelted with charcoal, as is the iron of those countries, there is

RECENT LETTER.

no doubt but that it will command an equal price in England. From the following extract from the Taranaki Herald, the local newspaper, it would appear that steps are about to be taken to render this export productive: –

"We are happy to learn that Mr. Hursthouse has received instructions from Messrs. Steinson and Co. (who are large iron manufacturers at Northampton), to ship per Joseph Fletcher, ten tons of the Taranaki iron sand, for further and more extensive experiments on that ore, the small samples heretofore sent home having, under the treatment of those gentlemen, yielded a steel by them considered fully equal to the best marks of Swedish, at a comparatively small expense. Their ultimate intention is, if similar results be obtained on a more extended scale, to form a company to work it in the colony."

The annexed recent letter from New Plymouth will suffice to show the nature of the country and its pursuits: –

"New Plymouth, Aug 30, 1852.

"MY DEAR * * *, – We have now been in New Zealand ten months, so I shall be able to tell you something about the place. It is now near the end of winter, and we have only seen ice once, and then not thicker than a fourpenny piece: it is rather cold in the evening, but gets warm towards the middle of the day. * * * Plants that are hothouse plants in England, stand in the ground and flower the whole of the winter; and several things that are annuals in England are perennials here. Scarlet runners stand in the ground five or six years, if they are cut down when they have done bearing. People grow vegetable marrows for pigs; a neighbour of ours grew several tons of them for pigs, most of them measuring 2 1/2 feet in length, and the same in circumference. They want no care at all; people just put the seeds into a piece of waste ground, and take no more trouble.

"We have fifty acres of land, about one-and-a-half miles from New Plymouth, and it is considered by everybody to be the best and most beautiful section of land about here. The river Waiwakaio (which is about sixty feet wide and swarming

THE NATIVES.

with fish) runs along the bottom of the land. There is thick forest, or bush as we call it, on two sides, and the front looking towards the sea, which is very pleasant, as we see the vessels coming in before the pilot or people in the town can see them. We have three very nice cows; one, a black one, makes 13 lbs. of butter a week, and only her second calf, which is considered very good indeed out here.

"I like the natives very much, but they will try to impose on a new comer if they can, by asking him three times as much as they mean to take for anything. We wanted a wash-house built some time ago, and we asked a lot of natives what they would build it for; after a great deal of talking and marking out the length and width, they said they would build it for 30l.; we told them we would give them 5l.; they said no, they would build it for 6l., and afterwards built it for 5l, The natives have at last consented to sell some of their land; it is a block the people have been wanting for several years, but the natives would never part with it until a few days ago; the governor offered a good price for it, and they took it: now we shall have plenty of land for everybody.

"The English vessels always stop at Auckland first; there the people tell the passengers such tales – it is no use going on to New Plymouth, they cannot get any land – that the natives are all up in arms, and it is not safe to live there. The Cresswell brought out twenty-three persons for New Plymouth, but the Auckland people told them such tales, they were afraid to come on, and out of the twenty-three, only three came on; but every person that comes here says they much prefer this place to either Auckland or Wellington.

"We have, as I told you before, fifty acres of land, about thirty of it clear of timber. We have this year about five acres in wheat, two in oats, and two in potatoes and turnips, and the rest grass. You would think it very curious to see some of our fields here. I saw a piece the other day, about ten acres, just sown with wheat; the field was covered all over with great logs, that would take five or six men to move, and the owner

PRICES.

said he quite expected to have forty bushels to the acre. They have the bush felled about October, and let it lie about three months to get dry, then set fire to it; it burns all the small wood, but leaves all the large, and those are left till they get rotten, which is in about three years. About July we sow our wheat – just sprinkle it over the ground (about one bushel to the acre) and leave it – do not cover it over at all, and we generally have a good crop. People have had sixty bushels to the acre, but the general run is forty to fifty.

"I send you a few of the prices of things here, viz.: – Wheat, 6s. 6d. per bushel; bread, 9d. per 4 lb. loaf; butter, 1s. per lb.; eggs, 6d. per dozen; bacon, 6d. per lb.; cheese, 1s. per lb.; mutton, 6d. per lb.; beef, 5d. per lb.; tea, 2s.; sugar, 4d. to 6d. per lb.; fowls, 2s., and ducks, 3s. per pair. You can get a very good cow, with her second calf, for 11l. or 12l. Horses are very dear; the natives will give 35l. for any old horse that will carry them, and that keeps up the price. There are about 200 horses in New Plymouth, and fully 160 of them belong to the natives. They have much more land in cultivation than the English. The natives will work almost as well as Englishmen for 2s. per day."

CHAPTER XI. OTAGO.

THE OTAGO SETTLEMENT.

CHAPTER XI

OTAGO.

Foundation of the Otago settlement – Progress – Pastures – Site of New Edinburgh – Surrounding country – Otago harbour – The River Clutha – Climate – Soil – Pastures – Products – Land and water communication – Coal – The natives.

THE Otago settlement, the most southerly of those at present established in New Zealand, is the first of what have been termed "class settlements;" i. e., such as are composed, at the commencement at least, of men of the same country, holding the same religious faith, and observing similar social customs. The founders of Otago were for the most part natives of Scotland, who united under the leadership of Capt. Cargill, the descendant of a gentleman whose memory lives among his countrymen from the zeal which he displayed in the religious struggles which once unhappily agitated our fellow-subjects north of the Tweed. Under Capt. Cargill, a society was organized which comprised within itself all that was deemed valuable in the social institutions at home, which were first provided for and consolidated. The means of religious worship, as might have been expected from the people, was their first care; – those of solid education, equally the characteristic of Scotchmen, being deemed in like manner important. In this department of the new community, Capt. Cargill had the good fortune to meet with an enthusiastic and zealous coadjutor, in the person of the Rev. Mr. Burns, a nephew of the Scottish bard. The necessary funds for the means of transit, as roads, bridges,

PROGRESS OF THE SETTLEMENT.

without which no colony, however fertile, can develop its resources, was the third consideration; and so well was the whole plan matured, and so ample the funds at the disposal of the colonial leaders, that these primary objects were at once set in motion, the manse characteristically enough being the first object completed.

The design of the founders of the settlement has already been more amply rewarded than they could have anticipated, They had looked to themselves alone, but others had an eye to their proceedings. Throughout New South Wales a considerable body of their countrymen were scattered, who, retaining all their veneration for the faith and the institutions of their native land, were only too anxious to participate in the advantages of their countrymen – advantages which their scattered condition in the Australian province prevented them from enjoying. The consequence has been that the Otago settlers have already been augmented by no inconsiderable body of their countrymen, and numbers of others are preparing to follow.

Notwithstanding this augmentation of numbers of their countrymen, the Scottish settlers are anticipating a still larger influx of their English brethren. Previous to the colonization of the southern portion of New Zealand, little was known of the district beyond the reports of the natives and the whaling parties who frequented the coast. It is now ascertained that immense tracts of land of the highest fertility await the enterprise of the agriculturist and the sheep farmer. Districts which may perhaps, within the present century at least, be pronounced to be unlimited in extent, are giving an importance to this settlement which its founders could scarcely have hoped for. To this may be added that a few days only will suffice to place the emigrant on a field of industry in the remotest part of the colony, where, previous to the past year, the foot of an European had never trod. Not that there exists any necessity for attempting at present to subdue the remote wilderness, the home districts being amply sufficient for all purposes which,

PASTURES.

without an extraordinary influx of population, can be required for many years to come; so that in no part of New Zealand, favoured as it is in this respect, can the emigrant become more speedily located, the delay of a single day being in most cases entirely his own fault.

To these advantages the attention of Englishmen is being rapidly drawn; and if the shipping advertisements of the neighbouring colonies be taken as a guide, we might almost imagine Otago to be among the oldest and best tried locations in the colony, instead of having scarcely celebrated the third anniversary of its formation.

The block of land which has been allotted to the settlement comprises 400,000 acres. Contrary to the general character of more northerly localities, it is not heavily though sufficiently timbered. The plains are well watered, and for the most part present a surface so little elevated as to be flooded in the rainy season by the streams which issue from the mountains. This is a great advantage, as facilities are not only thus given for irrigation, but also for drainage at a slight expense. The grasses of these natural meadows are highly spoken of, and by cultivation may be materially improved; or, if not found equal to English grasses, it is easy to substitute the latter for them. Throughout the whole district, water is always abundant, as it is indeed throughout all New Zealand; and floods subside as rapidly as they rise, leaving their fertile deposit as the basis of the ensuing year's crop. The swampiness which is now frequently the characteristic of the Otago plains in a state of nature will soon yield to the energy of the agriculturist, who always contrives to secure, if possible, some portion at least of a swamp in his allotment.

It would be useless to enter into the statistics of a settlement so recently founded, nor would it be much more to the purpose to attempt a minute description of the district in which the new settlement is placed. The information which has hitherto been obtained relative to the physical aspect of Otago, has been well condensed in a periodical published by

SITE OF NEW EDINBURGH.

the "Association for Promoting the Settlement of Otago," and will be found to contain quite sufficient to enable the intending emigrant to form a correct judgment of the locality.

"This well-defined block of land, comprehending 400,000 acres, is situated on the east coast of the Middle Island, about 150 miles south of Banks' Peninsula, extending from S. lat. 45 deg. 40 min. to S. lat. 46 deg. 20 min.; it has a noble harbour, abundance of untimbered fertile land, and open grassy pastures interspersed with an adequate supply of wood; a navigable inland water communication running up the centre of the block for nearly its entire length, and the richest land lying on either side of it, remarkably well watered; with an ample field of coal; and to the west, and stretching away to the feet of the Snowy Mountains, an unbounded sheep-walk, open to the farmer and flock-owner; – these constitute a series of combined advantages rarely to be met with within such a moderate compass.

"The block from which it is proposed to select the lands of the New Edinburgh settlement, has a coast line of from fifty to sixty miles in length lying between the mouth of Otago harbour and a headland called the Nuggetts, about three miles S. W. of Molyneux. It extends on an average distance inland of seven miles. The more hilly portions being omitted, the sections will be taken in one continuous line, extending throughout the whole district, branching out at various points so as to include all that is most desirable. The most remarkable feature in this district is the great facility of internal water communication. To so great an extent will this invaluable privilege be enjoyed, that no section will be far from, and many will be adjacent to, a navigable river or lagoon. In point of land, certainly there need not be an inferior section in the whole settlement.

"The southernmost portion of this block is watered by the rivers Puerua, Koau, and Matou, besides a multitude of smaller streams. The two last-named rivers are navigable for vessels of considerable tonnage. Connected with one another, and

SURROUNDING COUNTRY.

with the Matou, by navigable streams, are the lagoons of Kaitongata and Rakitoto, one and six miles long respectively. Their fertile shores will furnish an admirable series of sections, the only drawback to which is the scarcity (not the absence) of wood. The head of the Rakitoto lagoon is about eighteen miles from the mouth of the Matou; and here, in this direction, water communication ceases. There is no formidable obstacle to the formation of a road between this and the plain of the Tokomariro. The plain itself is about 7,000 acres in extent, and consists entirely of grass; but the neighbouring hills are not destitute of wood. Though well watered, it is free from swamps. From this valley there is almost a level pass Into that of the Taieri, where water communication again commences; and, by means of the Waihola lagoon and the Taieri river, continues uninterrupted to within about nine miles of the Otago harbour. The Waihola and Rakitoto lagoons are about twelve miles apart. The plain of the Taieri is swampy to a large extent; but, on the whole, will be a valuable district. The river of the same name flows into the sea about twenty or thirty miles south of Otago. For the first five miles from its mouth, it is confined within lofty and precipitous hills, that barely afford it room to pass. Beyond this the valley suddenly opens, and the river branches, leading to the Waihola on the south, and passing through the bulk of the valley on the north. Like the preceding districts, this is rather bare of wood.

"Between the Taieri and Otago, the country consists chiefly of hills of moderate elevation, covered with a good soil. Over them, and through the passes between, a practicable road might readily be formed." – -Munro, pp. 55, 56.

"At Port Cooper, half of the labourer's time would be consumed in bringing fuel from a distance to any suitable site for a settlement; and it may be safely asserted, that a section of fifty acres there would not pay the cost of fencing, and building on it, in the course of the owner's life. The neighbourhood of Otago is, on the contrary, essentially, as was observed to me

OTAGO HARBOUR.

by a labouring man from Nelson, a poor man's country – containing good land and plenty of wood. The plains in the vicinity of Banks' Peninsula would be more appropriately colonized under a system of division of the land into sections of not less than a square mile each, with facilities to flock-holders and capitalists to acquire a contiguous property to an extent to meet their means and wishes. Happily, the block of land purchased by the Company for the settlement of New Edinburgh, out of which we are at liberty to select 150,000 acres to meet the engagements made with purchasers, contains, in the immediate neighbourhood of the good land that will be surveyed as properties, extensive tracts of excellent pasture grounds, which will be open to all under the sanction of the Government; and outside the boundary of the block, to the westward, there is an extent of land of the same nature – boundless to the view, untrodden by the foot of man, and affording abundant food for sheep and cattle during the whole year, with the exception of a few weeks in the winter, when the uplands are covered with snow; during which time the plains and valleys yield a more abundant herbage than in the heats of summer." – Col. Wakefield's Letter to Secretary of New Zealand Company, p. 6.

Otago Harbour – Sites of Dunedin and Port Chalmers.

"This harbour is thirteen miles long, by an average width of two miles, with six fathoms of water for seven miles up, from the Heads to the Islands, and with three fathoms for the remaining six miles, up to the very head of the harbour, perfectly sheltered; the tide runs at the rate of three miles an hour, which will aid a vessel in working up and down the harbour. The harbour runs in a direction nearly north and south, and opens towards the meridian sun, which is justly esteemed a great advantage. The capital town of Dunedin will stand at the very head of the harbour, in a situation of great natural beauty, and connecting the rural land of the interior with the seaport.

"The first impressions created by the site of the harbour are

OTAGO HARBOUR.

extremely favourable. Lying open to the north, it is entered with a fair wind from the other settlements of New Zealand, and from Australia.

"This also prevents delay at the Heads, on leaving the port. A fair wind out of harbour takes a vessel soon free of the land, and, if seized at the commencement, may carry a ship of average sailing qualities to Cook's Strait in forty-eight hours.

"The distance between Port Nicholson and Otago is 320 miles. There is no lee-shore, except the bays along this coast, with the winds that usually blow with any violence. That from the north-east is known for its mild character. Its northern aspect, moreover, renders Otago much more agreeable than if it opened to the south, 3 as do Akaroa, Port Underwood, and Port Nicholson. The morning sun enlivens every part of the harbour, which is protected from the cold wind by an amphitheatre of hills. The wind prevails from the south-west, which draws right down and out of the harbour; but this need not prevent a vessel bound to the place, and unable to enter the port in consequence of its strength, from anchoring in perfect safety about a quarter of a mile from the eastern head (called Taiaroa's head), in smooth water of about eight fathoms depth, with good holding ground. Ample sea-room presents itself to strange vessels unable to fetch into the anchorage before nightfall. The sandbanks which lie immediately within the Heads are of inconsiderable extent, and have, according to Captain Wing, who sounded carefully all over the entrance, three fathoms and a half of water on them at dead low water, spring tides. The tide runs about three miles an hour, and may be made good use of in working a vessel up or down the harbour. As the port is landlocked on three sides, the sea seldom rises on the banks; and the sandy nature of the bottom prevents damage to small vessels touching it. Pilots and buoys will hereafter render the channel extremely easy to navigate vessels not exceeding five hundred tons burthen up to

OTAGO HARBOUR.

the islands; but larger vessels will find safe anchorage a mile inside the heads abreast of the village, which has sprung up there from its having been the site of a whaling station, and the residence of the natives visiting the harbour on their voyages from Banks' Peninsula to Foveaux's Strait. An American whaler of 600 tons was lying there lately to refresh. A great advantage presents itself at Otago over Port Cooper, in the abundance of timber and fire-wood that grows on its shores." – Col. Wakefield, pp. 4, 5, 6.

"Before leaving Hoputai, which you will observe by the chart is a small bay near the islands, and about midway between the entrance of the harbour and its head, I examined with Mr. Tuckett the capabilities it affords for the site of a seaport town. The land available for building around and contiguous to the bay, consists of about 150 acres. The face towards two sides of the bay is steep; but at the top there is table-land, and at the base sufficient level to afford room for a road. Warehouses might be also built almost even with the water, by excavating back into the hill. The great advantages of the site are, its being perfectly sheltered both from wind and swell of the sea, and having four and five fathoms water close to a sufficient part of its shores, for the construction of ample wharfs and quays.

"The shores of the harbour of Otago are, as I have already said, densely wooded. The hills are not so steep as around Port Nicholson; and the soil is, generally speaking, better adapted for husbandry. The distance from the heads of the port to its termination is about fourteen miles. A channel runs throughout its whole length; but it has not yet been precisely ascertained what depth of water there is to the south of the islands, or in the upper harbour, as it may be called. Near the islands there are fifteen fathoms; and a small vessel that took some of the surveyors and stores, carried three fathoms all the way up the harbour. When the channel is marked with stakes on the sandbanks, similarly to the upper part of Portsmouth harbour, and with two or three buoys near the

OTAGO HARBOUR.

entrance, no harbour that I have seen will be more convenient;, but in order to make it the most safe and commodious harbour of New Zealand, it requires a small steam-tug, which, when not engaged in towing vessels in or out, might be advantageously employed in plying between the port. and the town." – Ibid, pp. 7, 8.

"On the whole, I consider Otago as an excellent harbour. It has hitherto been thought to have a bar at its entrance, which is not the case. For picturesque beauty, Otago only yields to Akaroa amongst the harbours of New Zealand." – Ibid, p. 8.

"On the 24th of April, the exploring vessel entered the noble harbour of Otago. The entrance is narrow – a little more than a quarter of a mile only; and as there cannot be short of thirty square miles of tidal water within, the current at the mouth is strong. The harbour is divided into an inner and an outer, by two islands that lie across it. The former is about six miles in length, and the latter about seven. The average width of either is about two miles. The channels leading from the one harbour to the other are narrow and deep. A great portion of the space within both harbours consists of shallows, and every tide discovers several large dry banks. Still, enough of deep water remains to render either an extensive and valuable harbour. Nothing can be more perfect than the shelter it affords; and its fertile shores, wooded to the water's edge, form a picture of no ordinary beauty." – Munro, p. 55.

"Saturday, 27th. – Landed at the head of the inner or upper harbour – the length of which must be full seven miles, that of the lower about six. On either side, the forest continues unbroken; good timber is abundant; the soil, notwithstanding that the surface is often rocky and stony, appears to be fertile, the rock being probably a species of basalt. There is certainly more available and eligible land on the shores of this vast inland sea, than on any portion of Banks' Peninsula; and in respect of the facility of constructing a road, it possesses a corresponding superiority. A space of less than a quarter of a

SITE OF DUNEDIN.

mile intervenes at the head of the harbour, between it and the ocean shore; here, for a space of two miles, there is a water frontage to the harbour of unwooded land rising gently inland. Landing, I followed the native track for about two miles towards the Taieri, and then returned to the boat at this point. It offers an ornamental and commodious site for a town, most suitable in every respect, save the distance from the deep water of the lower harbour; the channel throughout is on the west side, and generally narrow, and a fathom and a half of water would be found to be within two miles of the extremity of the harbour. Two-thirds of the space covered by the flood is left dry at the ebb. Whilst I was there, the surface of the water was almost unruffled, and no swell entered from the ocean, where the entrance is narrow. The schooner lay without motion." – Tuckett, p. 37.

"To pursue the narrative of our perambulation of the boundaries. On arriving at the head of the upper harbour, an unexceptionable site for a town presents itself to the view. The character of the country here entirely changes. The land lies in long slopes or downs, upon which grows good grass mixed with shrubs, indicative of a strong soil. The aspect of the town will be northerly (facing the meridian of the sun), and fronting the harbour. To the west of it some undulating slopes, covered to the water's edge with beautiful timber and copsewood, offer space for several hundred ten-acre sections, semicircling a cove almost dry at low water. To the south, the uplands, which separate the large promontory in which the harbour is found, from the level pastoral country of the main, rise gradually as a protection from the cold winds. To the eastward is an opening in the chain of hills that belt the coast between the eastern head of Otago and Cape Saunders, across which extends a barrier of recent sandy formation, shutting out the sea, which in former times evidently flowed through what is now the harbour of Otago. The site of the town thus fixed at the head of the navigation of the port, and at the commencement of the rural lands of the settlement in their whole length, abounds in wood

THE RIVER CLUTHA.

and fresh water. The waters of the harbour teem with fish of the best sort. The habouka is taken in great quantities near the shipping town; flat fish and oysters in all the bays." – Col. Wakefield, p. 8.

"We returned to Otago on 26th of July. The proposed site of the town pleased me more on a closer inspection, and the next day I had my good opinion of it confirmed by Mr. Commissioner Spain, with whom I again visited it, and who pronounced it an admirable position for the purpose. In this particular I differ with Dr. Munro, who may possibly have not been favoured with the advantages I have had to seek for the location of towns. The only objection that I can name is its distance from the shipping town and port – viz., seven miles; but this is greatly palliated by the excellent water communication of the upper harbour." – Ibid, p. 11.

THE RIVER CLUTHA (MATOU, OR MOLYNEUX, IN THE MAPS). PLAIN OF THE CLUTHA.

"This fine river is a quarter of a mile broad, six fathoms deep, and retains, it is said, that depth and width for fifty miles inland as the crow flies. By all accounts, it appears to wind through extended plains of great beauty and extraordinary fertility. It forms the southern extremity of the block, whilst Otago harbour forms the northern extremity.

"The Clutha (or Matou) is a river which even an American would not contemn; its course inland is so distant, that I cannot pretend to estimate the distance. The hills west of its course are certainly twenty miles from the shore, and no snowy mountains are visible. Mr. – – – informed me, subsequently, that he had ascended it in a boat for at least fifty miles, and that it was still navigable for a large boat; also, that many navigable creeks unite with it, by one of which a boat may be taken to a lagoon, called Kaitangata, and then by a narrow channel to another lagoon, called Rangitoto, from whence the distance to the Taieri valley does not exceed six miles.

"Mr, Palmer informed me that he once ascended the Clutha

PLAIN OF THE CLUTHA.

(or Matou) in a boat for a distance, he imagines, equal to fifty miles, in a straight course (not estimated by that of the river) and he was still, he believes, very far from its head. I was much pleased with the Tautuke. It is not merely rich and picturesque in scenery, but very productive. I have no doubt but that a road might be easily formed up the valley, and over the summit ridge to the unwooded plains Tutu-rau and To-Toi." – Tuckett, pp. 42, 46.

"A short distance farther, and the rising ground, which had hitherto been close upon our right hand, turned off towards the interior; and we had before us the long beach at the bottom of Molyneux Bay, with a large extent of level country behind it. On mounting to the top of some low sand hills, we came in view of the Molyneux River – a majestic stream of water about a quarter of a mile broad, deep, with well-defined banks, flowing close to us parallel to the sea, with a steady, gentle current. Looking up it, we could trace its course through a large extent of alluvial land, by the thick foliage of ti-ti trees upon its banks, and by numerous groves of wood, producing a most picturesque effect. At the distance of about ten miles inland, gentle slopes, apparently grassy, rose to a moderate elevation, behind which no mountains were visible, save in one direction towards the north-west, where the white summits of a very far distant range showed themselves. The landscape was altogether one of great beauty and unusually rich softness." – Munro, p. 119.

"The Clutha (Matou or Molyneux) River is a magnificent stream, of near a quarter of a mile wide, deep, and with a moderate current. It is difficult of entrance from the surf over the bar at the mouth, and from the circumstance of its having an invariably outward current. Beyond the bar it has six fathoms of water; and it is said to preserve its depth and width for sixty miles from its mouth.

"The plain of the Clutha, which is from 10,000 to 20,000 acres in extent, has a fine growth of grass, flax, &c. The land is undoubtedly good, but liable in portions to be overflown.

CLIMATE. – SOIL.

Probably the most desirable land will be found on the neighbouring hills, which display a series of most beautiful slopes, chiefly clothed with grass. As on the plain itself, there is a fair sprinkling of wood. In every direction there are extensive tracts of this valuable description of country. The two white settlers have grown such crops of corn and potatoes on the fine wooded slopes behind the villages, as leave no doubt of their great fertility." – Ibid, p. 55.

"At Ivikatea the Clutha (Molyneux or Matou) is a splendid river, upwards of 200 yards in width, with a deep, steady current and definite banks. Each of the branches into which it divides is a large river, with a depth of several fathoms of water; but, unfortunately, at its mouth the river is contracted by a reef of rocks. What its navigable capabilities are has not yet been ascertained, but it is certain that its mouth is not easily accessible. By small vessels or steamers, it might, generally speaking, be entered, but not by sailing vessels of any burthen, except in particular states of the weather. In a direction inland, it is said to be navigable for whale boats for fifty miles, by the windings of the river, which, with deductions for exaggeration, may probably amount to about twenty-five." – Ibid, p. 233.

CLIMATE, SOIL, PASTURES, PRODUCTS, &c.

"Otago being situated at a distance of between 150 and 200 miles from the chilling influence of the vast range of snowy mountains running along the west coast, the climate is markedly warmer than at such places as Port Cooper, which, although lying 150 miles nearer the tropics, is yet within twenty or thirty miles of these mountains – which is found to be far more than sufficient to counterbalance the difference of latitude. The adaptation of the soil for the growth of wheat and other grain, and particularly of the finest qualities of potatoes, and also the richness and abundance of the pastures, seem to place this district in the very foremost rank, in point of agriculture,

PRODUCTS.

amongst the soils of New Zealand. Coal, iron, and copper have been found in the district.

"Beyond the first ridge of down, which forms the southern horizon from the harbour, lies an undulating country, covered with grass. This is more or less good, according to position and aspect, and has been much deteriorated in places, by extensive and repeated burnings, which impoverish the land. The worst of it, however, affords abundant food for sheep.

"The anise plant, so valuable as pasture for sheep and cattle, abounds on all the land we traversed. It is this plant that renders the plain of the Waimea, near Nelson, so propitious to the fattening of stock. I have never tasted such well-flavoured meat as that fattened on the natural pastures near Nelson. The plant is also found in abundance near Port Cooper, and in the Wairarapa valley, near Port Nicholson. I have not seen it farther north, or in any district where fern abounds. Its chief property seems to be a warming tonic. As such, I believe some preparation of its seed is given in racing stables in England, as a condition ball. It arrives at its full growth during the summer; but in many places, during our journey, I found it at this season of the year eighteen inches in length, and scarcely a square foot of ground without a root of it. In the upland regions we found snow in some places knee deep, and frozen to the depth of an inch; but on our return, these indications of a severe climate had disappeared before some days as warm as those of summer. The vicinity of snowy eminences is highly estimated by flock-owners, particularly where the downs are round topped and in long slopes, so that the gradual tricklings from the melting snows go to nourish the roots of the grasses. After traversing these downs for five miles from Otago, we overlooked the plain of the Taieri, which contains about 40,000 acres of land, and is intersected by the river of the same name, navigable for large boats twelve miles from the sea, which it reaches at about twenty-five miles from Otago. About two-thirds of the plain are now available. The remainder is subject to inundations,

LAND AND WATER COMMUNICATION.

but may be reclaimed and rendered more valuable than the higher parts." – Col. Wakefield, pp. 9, 10.

"The land at the head of the Waihola Lake consists of undulating downs, round topped and covered with herbage, grass of various descriptions, and anise of larger growth than any I had previously seen. Quails are plentiful over all these downs, and in the plains adjoining, and would be more so but for the hawks and kites. Hereafter it will become the business of the Scotch sportsman to give rewards for their destruction. The view from Owiti is very extensive. At its base to the S. W., lies the plain of the Tokomairaro, containing about 14,000 acres. To the east, hills, to the breadth of seven miles, extend to the coast; to the north lies the portage of seven miles between it and the Waihola; and to the west, undulating prairies of boundless extent, available for cattle and sheep three parts of the year. It would be a most advantageous and attractive thing to the settlement, if some Scotch proprietors would send some red deer to be turned out here. In the course of a few years, there is no doubt they would increase largely. The sport of hunting them would be highly attractive, and would conduce to the improvement of the breed of horses, and afford a manly amusement to the young colonists, fitting them for the more serious occupations of stock-keeping and wool-growing. The communication with this country from Otago is extremely easy. Water carriage can be made use of down the Taieri to the head of the Waihola Lake. A good road may be made without much expense from thence to Rangitoto. A short portage thence to Kaitangata Lake and to the Clutha river and district." – Ibid. pp. 10, 11.

"The tide having ebbed, we descended to the base of the cliffs, and walked along a natural pavement formed by the horizontal strata. We were not long in perceiving indications of coal in black streaks in the sandstone, and thin beds of richly bituminous shale; and we picked up several rounded pieces of pure coal cast up by the waves. But on turning a projected point, we found ourselves in face of a black wall or cliff, which,

COAL FORMATION.

upon examination, turned out to be pure coal. In thickness, what we saw of it could not be less than eighteen feet, while, as the pavement on which we stood was coal as well, extending out to meet the waves, it was impossible to say how much deeper it went. Mr. Tuckett was of opinion, that in quality it was very superior to the ordinary New Zealand coal; but in this opinion I could not agree with him, as it appeared to me to have the same conchoidal fracture and resinous lustre as the Massacre Bay coal, as well as that which I have seen from, other districts in this country. What was rather remarkable, was its nearness to the surface. Above it lay a bed of about twenty feet of a conglomerate of small quartz pebbles, on the top of which the soil commenced. We were not able to estimate the horizontal extent of the bed. What we saw ranged only for a few hundred yards, disappearing in some small gullies, which at that point intersect the cliffs." – Munro, p. 119.

"As we proceeded about the time of low water along shore, I was gratified to observe very abundant large pieces of drift coal of good quality; still no bed was visible in the face of the cliff. Farther on, the beach became again rocky, and quantities of coal were lodged between the rocks, and soon appeared in view a black cliff. I felt certain that it must be a vast formation of coal, although Mr. – – – , at Waikauwaike, had declared

that there was no other coal discovered along the coast but the insignificant appearance which I had examined at Matakaea. Approaching this cliff, I found it to be a mass of coal for about a hundred yards in length; in thickness from twelve to twenty feet, as seen in the face of the cliff above the sand; and to what depth it exists beneath the sand I could not ascertain; I should suppose, from appearance of coal adjacent, to the depth of low water.

"The beach is not accessible on account of the heavy swell and great surf. The coal must, therefore, be worked inland, and the bed will be, no doubt, discovered near the bank of the Clutha (or Matou) river, which, in a direct line inland, is

THE NATIVES.

probably not more than four or five miles distant." – Tuckett, pp. 41, 42.

The Natives.

"The locality of the settlement of Otago is hundreds of miles from the scenes of the recent disturbances with the natives. These were in the Northern Island. In the Middle Island (nearly equal in extent to England and Scotland), in the southern end of which Otago is situated, it may be almost said there are no natives at all, as it is calculated that there are not more than 1,000 in the whole Island, and these are almost entirely located on the shores of Cook's Strait. In the large district of Otago itself, there are only about fifty men, women, and children in all; and the opinion of some persons who have resided in the Islands, and are thoroughly acquainted with the native character, is, that they will be found too few, at least in the infancy of the settlement, as at that time their services would be very useful in doing a great many things for the colonists, which they could not do either so well or so cheaply for themselves."

3 It will be remembered that in the southern hemisphere the sun is north at noon.

CHAPTER XII. CANTERBURY.

PLAN OF THE CANTERBURY ASSOCIATION.

CHAPTER XII.

CANTERBURY.

Plan of the Canterbury Association – Probable progress of Canterbury – The Wakefield system – Evils of absenteeism – High price of land – The " self-supporting system " – Site of the settlement – Port Cooper – Society at Canterbury – Advice as to purchasing laud.

LIKE its predecessor Otago, Canterbury is a class settlement, for the most part composed of members of the Church of England, who carried with them, together with our more valued political institutions, the doctrines and discipline of the national Church. With this view, the original plans of the Association were so framed as to render it difficult to prevent their future development in the manner proposed by the founders of the Settlement.

The chief fault we find with the Canterbury Association is one which early manifested itself, viz., the strong tincture of Puseyism which has been infused into almost every operation of importance. Now this was at variance with the idea of class settlements, which are as yet but an experiment. They professed that the settlement was one of "Church of England men," without specifying the distinct sect of the Church of England meant; for, unhappily, that Church, though professing oneness, is split into many sects. This is acting against their own theory, since it may induce Churchmen, who have had the advantage of training under an evangelical pastor, to emigrate; when, on their landing, they would find themselves

CLASS SETTLEMENTS.

involved in the very polemical disputes of which we have just spoken, and, as far as public worship was concerned, would be compelled to have their religious feelings wounded by witnessing the ridiculous "mummeries" of Puseyite ceremonials as often as they went to church, or they must abstain from going to church at all. By this proceeding the Canterbury Association has, unconsciously perhaps, formed a "class settlement" of two distinct classes – distinguished at home by the most uncompromising hostility towards each other – in other words, it is no class settlement at all; for, in addition to these opponent classes, the emigrants found, on landing, a third class, which has puzzled their ecclesiastical leaders exceedingly, viz., a large influx, already on the spot, of persons from the neighbouring settlements, the inhabitants of which have little veneration for Puseyism or any other ism which would attempt to predominate over others; their constant care being to watch with a jealous eye any attempt at ecclesiastical encroachments. No man is better aware of this disposition on their part than the Bishop of New Zealand. With the exception of one or two feelers, as they may be termed, he has never ventured on any step which might be construed into an assumption of ecclesiastical predominance, well knowing, from the reception those trifles met with, that the people of his own communion would not tolerate any encroachment of the kind; much less would it be tolerated by other sects of equal numbers and influence.

The question naturally arises: are class settlements practicable? Our reply would be, that it is at best doubtful. Since the first edition of this book was published, the experiment has been fully tried at Otago, which, from a class settlement at its outset, has now ceased to bear any such designation. The influx of persons from other colonies – the restless spirit of migration which is a characteristic of colonists – has been such at Otago as to leave the first settlers in a minority, and the place is now anything but a class settlement. In this case, means were employed to preserve the class integrity of the settlement, which might almost have been termed inquisitorial

PROBABLE PROGRESS.

in spirit; the usual effect following, viz., that of more confirming the dissentients, and alienating others of the class, the integrity of which was to be preserved by such equivocal means.

Precisely the same effect will result in the Canterbury Settlement, and to a greater degree than at Otago, as far as the influx of strangers from the neighbouring settlements and colonies is concerned. Their locality is better in climate, and in relative position to the other settlements of New Zealand, than is that of Otago. The provision which they have made for social and religious institutions is considerable, notwithstanding the failure of the scheme. This alone will eventually cause many to migrate, even from the Australian colonies, for the sake of an education for children, as well as for that of a more refined state of society, which will form an object with parents. From these, and other causes, into which it would not be within the province of this book to enter, it is not unsafe to predict that, for every thousand persons shipped to the settlement by the Canterbury Association, another thousand, at least, will find their own way thither from other colonies. Every man of these, from mere habit, if from nothing else, will be averse to the religious predominance of any class; and old colonists, like ourselves, have little hesitation in predicting as to who will prevail in a contest of this nature. Let us hope that now Puseyism has been exploded at home, no such absurdity will again be permitted to interfere with the future prospects of the colony; and that the future class will be that of men who will make good colonists, leaving their conversion to clerical zeal and their own sense of religious duty.

There was one feature in the Canterbury Association which was of itself an element of success, and we regret that an effort containing such an element should have been marred from such an unworthy cause as the one to which we have just alluded. The element is this; – that, with some trifling exceptions, the whole of their purchasers of land were actual colonists. This is a new feature in colonies acting upon the Wakefield system, which

THE WAKEFIELD SYSTEM.

has hitherto been for the lands, for the most part, to be sold to absentees, the proceeds thereof going to send labourers to the colonies, without capitalists to employ them. The absentees have been induced to buy their lands, in the hope and expectation that the labour which they were thus instrumental in sending out would, by the increased value of land, shortly return them tenfold for their outlay; though their own common sense should have told them, that land is only valuable when brought into actual cultivation, and that it could not be brought into cultivation without capital, which notoriously did not, and, under the system, could not, accompany the labour, the capital being spent at home. It is amazing, in a mammon-worshipping country like this, to find that men who would "coin their blood for drachmas" should throw away their "drachmas," thus hardly acquired, upon a system which has hitherto produced nothing but marked failure. Yet these very men are now clamouring to the Government that they were duped, and require compensation! But we will not go into this subject, for we confess to being amongst the dupes alluded to, though not as absentees, but as actual colonists. We have often thought since, that it would have required no great stretch of our intellectual faculties to have perceived the quackery of this part of the Wakefield system, previous to trying it, but that is now too late, and we cannot make better use of our experience of it, than to warn others against similar delusion. They may take our word for it, that a colony thus formed must, for the first years of its existence, till other causes begin to act upon it, stand still, for want of capital to subdue the waste; the interim being occupied by the struggles of the colonists to live as they can.

The Canterbury founders saw this. In the plan of colonization agreed upon between the Canterbury Association and the New Zealand Company, the practical truth of the preceding seems to have been fully appreciated, for we there find it stipulated that the purchaser is to pay ten shillings an acre for rural land, in quantities of not less than fifty acres, the difference

EVILS OF ABSENTEEISM.

between that sum and the 3l. per acre actually charged being for purposes which would have expended the whole of such difference in the colony, and not, as under the Wakefield system, at home, the colony getting none of it; – the latter process being, in fact, so much capital abstracted from the colony which would otherwise have gone to it.

We lay great stress upon the point to which we have adverted, viz., the purchasers of land being themselves the colonists. To us, who have suffered under the evils of the old system, it is the most important feature of late years of colonization, though to the intending emigrant it may not appear at first sight to possess the importance it merits. The soil is there, the landowners are there, and their capital is there, even that which they paid for their land; the latter being by no means the least feature. This will not be appropriated otherwise, as in the case of Nelson, to which the New Zealand Company, at its close, was a defaulter in tens of thousands of pounds which the land-purchasers had paid to them to be expended for their advantage in the colony, but which sums were expended at home without even so much as a thought of the colony. The same thing, though to a less extent, has taken place in New Plymouth, the colonists of which settlement have never had expended for them the stipulated portion of the land sales.

It will not be out of place to give the intending emigrant an example of the evils of absenteeism, and from this they may judge of the importance of the actual purchasers of land being themselves colonists. We believe we are right, for we have not documents at hand to refer to, when we state that of all the original purchasers of land in Nelson, thirty only are resident colonists. The consequence is, that very little land has been brought into cultivation but what has resulted from the labours and capital of those persons, added to the owners of a few leases which have been granted by order of the absentee proprietors. The extent of operations by these few persons has been extraordinary, so much so as to export agricultural produce to Sydney, besides supplying their own market. What would

ABSENTEEISM.

not the Nelson settlement have exported, if, as in the case of the Canterbury settlement, all, or nearly all, the landholders had proceeded to the colony with their capital devoted to its legitimate object?

Again; the site for the colony of Nelson was originally intended to be at Port Cooper, the present site of the Canterbury settlement. This was forbidden by Captain Hobson, the then Governor of New Zealand, who refused to have the Middle Island colonized at all, hoping thereby to drive the Nelson colony northwards to the vicinity of Auckland. The Company's agents were equally determined that it should not be planted according to his wish, so that, when Captain Wakefield sailed from Port Nicholson with the first ships of the expedition, he had actually to go in search of a place whereon to land emigrants. It so happened that Mr. Partridge, an intelligent Wellington colonist, had just returned from Blind Bay, reporting favourably of the surrounding country. Adapting his advice, Captain Wakefield sailed thither under the pilotage of Mr. Moore, and finding the commodious little port which now forms the harbour of Nelson, planted the settlement there. Unhappily, when too late to remedy the choice, it was found that there was, comparatively speaking, but little land adapted to the purposes of cultivation, and nothing in comparison with the magnitude of the scale on which the settlement had been contemplated. Since that period the settlers and absentees have demanded that they should reselect their lands in the extensive plains of the Wairau, in the vicinity of Queen Charlotte's Sound. This demand was acceded to, and the re-selection made. Now, mark the evil of absenteeism. These Wairau plains contain some of the finest plains in New Zealand, their fertility depending in a great measure upon their swampy nature at certain seasons of the year. But this is unfortunately their bane. To bring the district into an arable condition would require an outlay of 30,000l. or 40,000l. upon a system of drainage on a large scale; whilst without this, it would be useless to attempt cultivation on the part of any one

HIGH PRICE OF LAND.

or two settlers, as their lands would again be overflowed by the adjoining wastes. To effect this great system of drainage there are the thirty settlers of Nelson alone – it being both impossible and unjust they should drain the whole of the absentees' lands at their own expense; while the absentees at home refuse to contribute one shilling towards the improvement even of their own lands, alleging that they bought the land, or rather the land-orders, expecting to reap their advantage from the labour of the settlers, and they have been besetting the Government to compensate them for their bad bargain. The consequence of all this is, that the Wairau plains are condemned for the present to remain in a state of nature; and though, if drained, they would become wonderfully fertile, yet, as they are for the most part owned by absentees who will not contribute their share in draining them, they are as useless to the settlement as though they were in a state of sterility; whilst they form a positive stumbling-block in the way of the colonists themselves. The intending emigrant will now understand what are the evils of absentee purchases of land, though this is only one instance; and he will not be at a loss to estimate our reasons for attaching importance to the fact that the purchasers of lands in the Canterbury settlement were themselves colonists, who are not likely to let a swamp stand in their way for want of unanimity in a system of drainage.

"We have spoken of the price demanded by the Canterbury Association for their waste land, viz., 3l. per acre. This was, unquestionably, high; but as the colonists themselves required, at the outset of the colony, other advantages than those of labour only, and as they were quite willing to pay for these advantages, the high price demanded was legitimate. As the intending emigrant may not be acquainted with the reasons for demanding a high price for colonial waste lands, we will adduce a few of them, premising that, though generally attributed to Mr. Wakefield, the system originated with Sir Josiah Child, to whose writings not a few political economists besides Mr. Wakefield have been indebted.

LAND AND LABOUR.

It is a settled doctrine amongst political economists, that land is not value, but that it is labour which gives to it its value. This will be evident from the following case: – Suppose a man placed upon 100 acres of land in New Zealand or elsewhere; if he had not the means of cultivating this land, viz., labour, the land would be of no value to him, further than his own labour might extend. Again, he would not have the means of introducing labour, so that his land might become valuable. It would not be in his power to send home for labourers to cultivate his land. But by the combined contributions of himself and others similarly situated, labour might be got in sufficient quantity to cultivate the lands of all, and thereby give value to them, which otherwise they would not possess.

But again, suppose some of these landowners were willing to contribute funds for the introduction of labour, but that others, either from ignorance, or from the hope of profiting at the expense of their more intelligent neighbours, were not willing, – it is clear that difficulty would arise from the want of unanimity in this respect, so that, in all probability, no effective steps would be taken, and the land would remain valueless as before. It will be clear, then, that the introduction of labour into a new colony could not with safety be entrusted to the colonists themselves, even if they had the organized means of introducing labour, which they have not, nor could they by possibility obtain them, so that such contributions on their part should be judiciously expended.

The most simple expedient, under these and other similar circumstances, is, instead of giving the land to the landowner, to make him pay such a price, nominally, for his land, as shall enable the seller to send labour either with him, or after him, as the exigencies of the colony may require. So that, in fact, the land-purchaser does not, in reality, pay for his land, but for the labour whereby alone the land can become valuable to him, or to the community of which he forms a part, and without which labour the land would be dear at a gift, if it were a condition that the person to whom it was given,

THE "SELF-SUPPORTING SYSTEM."

without the requisite accompanying labour, should reside upon it.

But this principle can be applied to new colonies only. When a colony has attained such a magnitude as to be able to guide its own affairs, the price of waste lands is whatever the colonists themselves choose to sell them at; they being the best judges of their value, and of their own interests in the sale.

This, however, is the principle of the system, known as the "self-supporting system," that, as land without labour is valueless, and as colonists have not within themselves the organized means of introducing labour – whilst, if they had, many would evade their contributions to the common good – it becomes necessary, for an efficient supply of labour to the colony, to organize efficient means for that supply, without further care or anxiety on the part of the colonist, – putting the supply, in fact, beyond his control, except to use the labour sent out to him.

The only way in which this can be effected, is to demand of the land-purchaser such a price for his land as shall ensure a sufficient supply of labour whereby it may be cultivated. Of this price, under the pound-an-acre system, 75 per cent., or 15s. in the pound, went, or rather should have gone, for the supply of labour, and other colonial improvements equally necessary with labour itself; and 25 per cent., or 5s. in the pound, was the remuneration given for the trouble and expenditure of those who organized the means for the requisite supply of labour. And this five shillings is, in fact, the only price which the land-purchaser pays for his land; for it would be absurd to say that the fifteen shillings in the pound, which he pays for labour, is not amply returned to him in the labour which it provides, and without which his land would not possess the slightest value. Even this five shillings in the pound may be said, mercantilely speaking, to include a commission for doing that which he cannot possibly do for himself.

But another question here arises, as to what price should be paid for colonial land, so as to ensure a sufficient amount of

VALUE OF LAND.

labour: and this question is somewhat vaguely answered in Mr. Wakefield's recent work on Colonization, as being a "sufficient price" but without, perhaps, a sufficient explanation as to what price may be sufficient. It has already been shown, that the price paid, though nominally for land, is really – minus 25 per cent. – for labour. only. Consequently the "sufficient price" becomes, in one sense, that which will place such a quantity of labour upon the land as will render it most productive. On fertile lands, these being suited for all agricultural purposes, the amount of labour, and consequently of price for its introduction, should be high. On barren lands, as only being suited for sheep-farming, which requires but little labour in comparison, it should be low. If five pounds per acre were universally paid for the fertile lands of New Zealand, so that five labourers could be introduced upon a hundred acres of land instead of one, it would be an advantage to the colonist; for his hundred acres, thus cultivated, would yield him a greater return in proportion than they could do with one labourer only. But this reasoning only holds good, provided the agreements of colonizing companies are fulfilled, which unfortunately they have never been in any instance. Again, in the pastoral districts of New South Wales, which will grow nothing but coarse grass, and that scantily, five shillings per acre is too much; for this would give a proportion of one labourer to a number of acres which will only feed twelve sheep; i. e., a labourer to twelve sheep, which is an absurdity. It might be said, at first sight, "But barren lands require more labour than fertile ones to make them productive." Not so: the real question is, why cultivate barren lands at all, whilst plenty of fertile ones invite the spade and the plough? If the fertile lands of New Zealand are worth to the colonist, say one pound per acre, the arid pastoral districts of New South Wales would be dear at one penny per acre; and that for this simple reason, that the one acre of New Zealand will, with ordinary cultivation, produce forty bushels of wheat worth four shillings per bushel, whilst one acre of the pastoral districts of New South

A "SUFFICIENT PRICE."

Wales, at the rate of four sheep to an acre, as reckoned in the colony itself, will only produce one-fourth part of a sheep's fleece, worth ninepence. No man could possibly argue that the lands of New South Wales were worth one pound per acre, though the Government, in its ignorance of the true value of the land, declared that such should be its price.

Consequently the "sufficient price" is according to the capabilities of the colony, and its adaptation for agricultural or pastoral pursuits. It is simply absurd to say that a hundred acres of land which will only feed twenty-five sheep, is worth as much as the same quantity of land which will grow 1,200 bushels of wheat, or that the same labour is requisite for the care of twenty-five sheep as is requisite for the production of 1,200 bushels of wheat.

The preceding, as we have defined the "sufficient price," would form a rational system of colonization, and one which, if the land-purchasers were themselves the actual colonists, could not fail of success, with even a commonly congenial soil and climate. But if absentee purchasers were encouraged, the high price would be more disastrous than a low one; for its certain result would be a more lavish expenditure at home, and an additional incentive to that jobbery which is inherent in all public companies, however pure may be the motives of their founders.

It must not, however, be forgotten that such are not Mr. Wakefield's views of the "sufficient price." We penned the preceding remarks in the first and second editions of this book, with a view of showing that a high price of land in a really fertile colony was rather an advantage than otherwise; and, if other requisites than that of labour are to be introduced into the colony from the proceeds of the land fund, of course an additional price must be placed upon the land, for these purposes also.

Mr. Wakefield's view in demanding a high price for land is, to use his own words, this – "There is but one object in a price, and about that there can be no mistake. The sole object of a

MR. WAKEFIELD'S DOCTRINE.

price is to prevent labourers from becoming landowners too soon; the price must be sufficient for that one purpose, and no other." There is something so heartless in this last crotchet of Mr. Wakefield – and he ignores all his previous opinions in favour of it; making it, in fact, the culminating point of his book – that we confess to having purposely suppressed it in previous editions, lest it might deter intending labouring emigrants from proceeding to any colony with which the writer of such opinions was then connected. The appeal is to mammon, to the man of capital in money, who is thus taught that capital in energy, in intelligence, and in industry, must carefully be kept down, or he otherwise cannot thrive. The labourer is not to be encouraged in frugal habits, lest he may too soon become a landholder; should he be frugal and saving, the best way to keep him down will be to raise the price of land, and thus prevent him from becoming such. This is Mr. Wakefield's doctrine, and we can only say that it betrays an ignorance of the springs of human action and wealth, which could scarcely have been expected from him. To use the words of an excellent colonial writer, he forgets that "all the elements of human wealth are human labour, and the materials and power that God has placed in and upon the soil and elements around us;" yet, with Mr. Wakefield, all his past views and opinions appear to have merged into one theory, for he voluntarily abandons all others – and that theory is – "the labourer must be kept down." We shall not here discuss the subject; – referring such of our readers as may wish to see it discussed, to the 2nd, 3rd, and succeeding numbers of the Australian and New Zealand Gazette.

The Association by which the settlement was founded, has come to a premature end, not so much, perhaps, from the extent of objects to which their funds were to be applied, as from having commenced these on a false basis. The land for which they had obtained a charter from the government amounted to a million acres; their calculations were based on disposing of 100,000 acres of this at once, but the sales, during

PORT COOPER.

the whole of their operations, never reached this amount so that the execution of a number of promised projects, as roads churches, schools, &c, was prevented, or but partially executed, and the consequence has been a charge against the Association of not fulfilling their contracts with the settlers and land-purchasers, who emigrated in the full belief that the Association would be able to accomplish all which it expected to accomplish.

The country selected for the new settlement was Banks' Peninsula, and the plains on the mainland adjacent. The only available harbour to this was Port Cooper, a commodious haven enough, but, at one time of the year, exposed to the north-east winds. On the opposite side of the peninsula was the harbour of Akaroa, one of the finest in New Zealand, but at this period it was unfortunately in the hands of a French company, which had sent out a small colony at the time when the British Government first took possession of New Zealand; which colony Captain Hobson was scarcely in time to frustrate. Akaroa was, moreover, divided from the Canterbury plains by a formidable range of hills, which would have required the construction of an expensive road, thirty miles in length. Port Cooper was therefore at once selected as the harbour of the new settlement.

It had been the wish of the Association, to make the port town the capital of the settlement. But no site could be obtained, on the shores of the harbour, of sufficient size for a large town, as was anticipated. At the head of the harbour, there was, indeed, an excellent site, but with the drawback of shoal-water, so that ships could not approach within two miles of the shore. Captain Thomas, therefore, to whom the selection of the town was confided, placed the capital of the settlement (Christchurch) on the plains; the port town (Lyttelton) being formed in the place most commodious for shipping. The anchorage is about four miles from the heads, and large vessels can lie within a quarter of a mile from the shore, small craft being able to anchor close to the town.

SOCIETY OF CANTERBURY.

The communication between Lyttelton and the plains is over a range of hills of no insurmountable character, but the road thither has made no great progress, though, as far as it goes, it is an excellent one. The road being incomplete, it is found advantageous to take the luggage &c. of those settlers bound for the plains to Sumner, from which access to Christchurch is easy.

The first ships arrived in December 1849, and as ample provision had been made for the passengers by Capt. Thomas in the shape of comfortable emigration barracks, &c, none of the discomforts were experienced such as befel the first colonists of the older settlements, whose first home was the bare beach or a native hovel. A jetty had been provided, stores erected, with the means of conveyance at hand to remove goods as they were landed from the ships. So excellent had been the arrangements made by order of the Association for the reception of the first settlers, that little or no discomfort was experienced by any one.

The 3l. -an-acre system of the Association is now at an end, and land will henceforward be sold at the price which may be adopted by the local government as provided for in Sir John Pakington's bill. Some time must, however, elapse before this is decided on.

The society of Canterbury is of a superior character, many of the upper classes having emigrated on account of the ecclesiastical Utopia which was to have been founded. Though this has not realized the expectations of the founders, the settlers have in its stead one of the finest pastoral and agricultural districts in New Zealand, possessing advantages which ultimately must raise the Canterbury Settlement to a lucrative position. The settlements of the north island have but little pretension to sheep and cattle farming on a large scale, but the plains and downs of the Middle Island present an illimitable field for these pursuits.

The statistics of Canterbury, as of the other newer settlements, are not worth entering into. Somewhere about 3,000

ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS.

persons have been sent out by the Association, and of these the cream still remains, the speculative and the dissatisfied having gone to the Australian gold fields, no doubt to return when satisfied with the attainment of their wishes, or, as is still more probable, with their non-attainment.

Having now given a sufficient account of the settlements of New Zealand to satisfy either curiosity or the purposes of the intending emigrant, we will note a few other matters which may be useful to the latter, and not uninteresting to the former.

If an emigrant have made up his mind to go to New Zealand, it is a matter of little consequence to what settlement he does go. If his objects are commercial, Auckland and Wellington are his localities; if agricultural or pastoral, any of the others without distinction, for each has peculiar advantages, though the general characteristics of the country are common to all.

Let him buy no land in England. Of companies he cannot, for, luckily for the colony, they have now none to sell. He will do well to eschew private bargains also, as by the time that he has been a year or so in the colony, he will have acquired experience in selection, and if he have the means – not much being wanted – to have travelled over the country with a knapsack on his back, so as to make himself acquainted with the best spots, he will then, at a small outlay, acquire an estate worth having. One of the greatest dangers of getting land at first, is that, in his haste, he may get hold of an estate of comparatively little value with another which he might have had, with the patience to search it out. An emigrant with small means can have no better rule than always to work for others at first. If his means admit, an equally good rule is to do nothing whatever for six months but look about him. At the expiration of that time, he will be fit to be trusted with his own money – but hardly before; except that his money, even if prematurely parted with, will buy him experience, but at a somewhat dear rate.

ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS.

By most of the ships which sail from England he will have an opportunity of visiting various settlements, so that he can himself judge of them. But he must beware of listening too credulously to the representations he meets with in any. He must use his own eyes, for amongst a number of rival settlements, the want of which is his cash, he is pretty sure to hear all others run down, and he may stay otherwise than he intended. Not that he can do wrong by staying anywhere.

CHAPTER XIII. HINTS PREVIOUS TO THE VOYAGE.

BEST TIME FOR SAILING.

CHAPTER XIII.

HINTS PREVIOUS TO THE VOYAGE.

Best time for sailing – Provisions – Cabin furniture – Tools – Agricultural implements – Punctuality in sailing – Remitting money – Wooden houses for emigrants – Situation of a dwelling – Ventilation.

ONE great advantage which the emigrant to New Zealand possesses over many others, is his perfect freedom from care whilst on board as to his provisions or accommodation: both are carefully looked after for him. He has no fear of being placed on short allowance, either from his own miscalculations, or from a voyage longer than ordinary. In case of sickness, he and his family are carefully looked after by a surgeon approved by the Canterbury or Otago Associations. In short, he has no occasion, as far as the voyage is concerned, to take thought at all, either for himself or his family.

The best times for sailing are from the beginning of April to the end of October, though it scarcely makes any difference as to what time of the year the emigrant sails. The only advantages gained by sailing at the times mentioned are, that a protracted and disagreeable voyage in the English Channel, and a boisterous passage round the Cape of Good Hope, are avoided by not sailing in the winter months. With these exceptions, all times are pretty nearly alike, and even these exceptions are scarcely worth naming in a first-class, well-regulated ship. By sailing at the periods above mentioned,

PROVISIONS.

however, the emigrant arrives in the colony from the spring to the autumn, which is an advantage, as he can at once plant and sow, though most vegetables can be planted and sown during the whole year. There is no cessation of employment during the winter, as in Canada, so that, as far as this is concerned, it is immaterial to the labouring man at what time of the year he arrives in the colony. He is in no fear of being thrown on the benevolence of his fellow-colonists for support, or of dragging through a long winter dependent on the charity of others, as too many Canadian emigrants could testify. The most expeditious voyages are not unfrequently those in which the ships leave London in the winter months, but the matter is really of so little consequence, as not to be worth further allusion.

The cabin passengers have their food cooked according to the prescribed scale, and served to them, at the respective meals, as it would be at the table of an hotel, all necessary attendance being included. The second-cabin passengers cook for themselves, and the general practice is this: They appoint a messman from amongst themselves for each week, taking it in turns, or appointing some one emigrant to act as messman and cook during the voyage, paying him a small sum as may be agreed upon. The provisions for the whole mess are served out to him daily, or, in some ships, on three days a week. The water is similarly served out.

Provisions are put on board for six months, the voyage rarely occupying more than four months. Water is put on board for a similar period. The amount of solid food to each passenger is upwards of twenty pounds per week, even supposing the voyage to last six months. The forecabin dietary especially, is more ample than that allowed in ships conveying Government emigrants. In addition to the inspection which all provisions undergo from the Canterbury Association's shipping officer, they are also subjected to the supervision of the Government emigration-agent.

A table and seats are found for the forecabin passengers,

TOOLS.

who, however, find their own cooking utensils. The best way is to subscribe for these. The following articles are necessary to each individual or family: a can, to hold the supply of water, a wash basin, baking dish, tin pot, drinking can, tin plate, teapot, spoon, knife and fork for each individual, and an oval pot and tea-kettle for the mess. Cooking is performed in the ship's coppers, before that for the chief-cabin passengers. Firing is found at the ship's expense, but no cooking is allowed except at the stated times, which, for the sake of good order in the ship, are strictly kept. Rain-water may be occasionally caught for washing; otherwise, it must be obvious that no washing can take place.

Cabin passengers furnish their own cabins at their own expense, and in what way they please. The Association provides all requisites for the table, as plate, linen, glass, &c.

A good assortment of tools is a desideratum to those whose means will command them; but too many of these are not desirable, and many will be better purchased in the colony, as they will be found better adapted for colonial uses. This remark particularly applies to axes, hoes, and some other agricultural tools. In taking out spades, shovels, forks, scythes, and similar implements, the iron parts only should he taken, as they otherwise occupy much room, and cost a considerable sum in freight. Carpenters should always have a good assortment of tools, as their employment may often turn upon this point, particularly in the agricultural districts, where tools are difficult to be obtained. In the towns, it is of no great consequence, as they may always he bought, though sometimes at a considerable increase of price. The station and circumstances of the emigrant will form for him the best guide upon these subjects.

Avoid those expensive and useless gimcracks called tool-chests, but make a selection of American axes, all others are of no use, handsaws, cross-cut saws, wedges, chisels, and other carpenters' tools. Give the best price for these, the timber of New Zealand will try the goodness of the best article, and

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

inferior ones will be found to be a mere waste of money to no purpose. The same may be said of garden tools; those bought in the colony being generally "made to sell," and of very little utility for work. The emigrant has an opportunity of procuring the best tools at starting, and the opportunity of procuring good ones seldom occurs to him after his settlement in the colony. Nails, screws, and other articles of this nature, may be bought in the colony, at a trifling increase of price, and are therefore not worth taking out.

It is a very common mistake of the zealous emigrant to take out ploughs, harrows, and other unwieldy agricultural implements. The freight of these is generally equal to the cost, from the room they occupy in a ship. It would be much better to take out the iron work alone, which goes in a small compass, and can be as well fitted in the colony as at home. My advice, however, would be to dispense with these implements altogether, unless the emigrant were possessed of means to farm on a large scale. From my own experience of New Zealand agriculture, I am convinced that not only the best and most economical, but also the most productive agricultural implements are the spade, mattock, bill-hook, and axe. The ground gets at once better cleared and cultivated, than it would with the plough and harrow for years. The advantages of spade husbandry are great over that of the plough even in clean land, much more are they so in unclean land. The process is perhaps slower, but it is much more sure, and one acre of spade-dressed land will produce pretty nearly as much as two of land scratched with the plough, for the operations of the plough in new lands amount to little more than scratching. Let the emigrant bear in mind, that the mere possession of a formidable array of agricultural implements is not agriculture; but the industrial use of the spade and mattock is. Many of the early settlers in New Zealand made ridiculous mistakes in this respect. Thrashing machines, drills, patent harrows, ploughs of the most ingenious construction, and in short, half the patent implements of an agricultural show were there;

PUNCTUALITY IN SAILING.

when the writer left the colony most of these were rotting on the beach in the same place as they occupied when landed. The simpler the instruments used the better, for they will be used to good purpose, and will always produce a good crop; whilst a good dry north-west gale, forms as good a winnowing machine as ever received the medal of the Royal Agricultural Society. The only care necessary in the use of this very natural contrivance is, that the wheat is not blown away together with the chaff.

With reference to the necessity on the part of the emigrant to husband his capital till his arrival in the colony, where he will most need it, little needs be said. The prudence and even the necessity of so doing, must be so apparent to every one who regards the colony as the field for his future exertions, and who wishes to do well in it, that it cannot fail to be appreciated. Money, in the colony, gives not only power, but consideration, and by landing with as much of it in his pocket, as a careful avoidance of unnecessary expenditure will enable him to do, the emigrant thereby at once gains a standing in society, which he would otherwise have to work up to. Colonial society is for the most part utilitarian, and the way to command a standing therein, is to become utilitarian also.

Punctuality in sailing is of paramount importance to the emigrant, since delay in this matter is, from the expenditure which it necessarily involves, of serious moment even to those who possess considerable capital; and the more so, if a family has to be provided for during the interval of waiting for the ship. To the poor man such delay is positively ruinous, and may materially alter the position which it should be his aim to assume on his arrival in the colony. All classes of emigrants will do well to place themselves under a system whereby such previous waste of their capital is rendered unnecessary.

It is a very common trick with shipbrokers to advertise a ship to sail at a date positively given, not that they have the slightest intention that the ship shall leave the dock for perhaps a month, or even more, afterwards. If the emigrant

MODES OF REMITTING MONEY.

rely upon their assertions, which, for the sake of at once getting him to pay a deposit for his passage, they make, with every assurance of punctuality, he brings his family to London at the appointed time, and finds, to his serious inconvenience, that he has to keep them in expensive quarters during the delay which takes place till the vessel has completed her cargo. He has no remedy, though the law might afford him one, by considering the date appointed for sailing, and the passage-money paid in consideration of that date, as a contract between the shipbroker and the emigrant. But the emigrant has no time and less inclination for litigation, and having paid his passage-money, is only anxious to get to the place of his destination; he, therefore, pockets both the loss and the annoyance, and by the time he arrives at the expiration of his voyage, probably thinks no more of the matter. The ship-broker perfectly well knows this, and makes his calculations accordingly. He has also no prospect of ever obtaining the game passenger a second time for a customer, and having got his passage-money, not unfrequently meets any complaint as to the delay, with incivility, always with indifference.

Money may be remitted through the Union Bank of Australia, and the commission varies, according to the rate of exchange, from 2 to 4 per cent. It is fully as cheap to ship it in sovereigns as cargo, and insure it. But in case of loss, the emigrant would have to wait for it till paid in England by the underwriters, or for at least twelve months, and in some cases more, so that remittance through the Bank is the best way. It is unwise to take money, in any considerable quantity, without insurance, and equally unwise not to pay for it as freight, as then the ship becomes answerable for its loss; but if not paid for as freight, if it be stolen on board, the owner has to bear his own loss. The best way is to insure everything, even to wearing apparel, the cost being trifling. The writer can speak feelingly on this point. When going to New Zealand he insured everything. When leaving New Zealand for India, he insured nothing, and was wrecked in

WOODEN HOUSES.

Torres' Strait, losing everything, but a few articles of wearing apparel.

It would be useless to continue these admonitions; if comprehended in the spirit in which they are written, the emigrant will so far apply them to other matters, as to take nothing with him that will be useless and a burden.

It is often a debated point with emigrants who can afford it, as to whether they shall take a house with them or not. Whenever this can be afforded, and it is the intention of the party to go to work upon his own land as soon as possible after his arrival, I would say, take your house with you, or at least the framework for it, and that for many reasons. If the emigrant have taken a wooden house, he is much more likely to be in earnest to get a place on which to erect it than he would be were he without one. He may lose no little time in looking for one to rent or purchase, and after he has done this, it is ten to one if he be in such a location as will suit his purpose with reference to his future proceedings; in which case it will become a positive evil, by delaying him in the prosecution of his final object, besides subjecting him to an expenditure perhaps beyond the original cost of a wooden house in London.

He will pay in London from 4Ol. to 120l. for a wooden house complete, with windows, doors, and all ordinary fittings, according to its size, and the number of rooms he may require. These rooms are, of course, all upon the ground floor, which, in a temperate climate like that of New Zealand, is an advantage rather than otherwise, besides giving a free scope to tasteful designs in the erection. This house may be, in all cases, put up within two days, or, at a pinch, in one day. The emigrant has, therefore, nothing to do hut to get his location, and set up his house almost with the same ease with which he could have done a tent. In less than a week after his arrival he is literally at home, and in a condition to go to work.

A wooden house, if lined within with thin planks, and well

WOODEN HOUSES.

made, is one of the most comfortable either in summer or winter. In the former it is cool, in the latter warm, and that for this reason: between the inner and outer lining there is a vacant space of the breadth of the studs or uprights. This space is, as a matter of course, filled with air, and air is a nonconductor of heat, so that in summer it does not admit heat from without, and in winter it does not permit it to escape from within.

One of the greatest evils of wooden houses in a warm climate arises from the unscientific way in which their roofs are built by the London makers; and the emigrant should see that the following very simple particulars are attended to: if a house has a high pitched roof, it is much hotter than one with a roof of lower pitch. For instance: suppose the angle of the sun's rays in any country or climate be on any given day 45 degrees, and supposing these rays falling on a roof built at the very common angle of 45 degrees, the sun's rays are then perpendicular to the roof, which of course transmits every particle of heat to the interior apartments of the house, and renders them scarcely habitable; but if the roof be built at a less angle than 45 degrees, the sun's rays are reflected from the roof at the same angle as that which they made in striking it, and the heat does not enter at all. Take Wellington for example. This district is in 41 degrees south latitude. The sun is never perpendicular to any place farther than 24 degrees south; consequently, at midsummer it is 17 degrees from the perpendicular at Port Nicholson. If, therefore, the roof of a house is built at a less angle than 17 degrees, the sun's rays can never become perpendicular to it, and the heat can never incommode the occupants. If a hothouse were to be built, it would be then good policy to make the roof of such a pitch as that the sun's rays should be perpendicular to it on as many days of the year as possible; but in a warm country, the flatter the roof, consistently with the drainage of rain water from it, the more cool and comfortable will be the house. If the emigrant will call to mind

EMIGRANTS' HOUSES.

that in countries bordering on the tropics, the roofs of houses are generally flat, he will see the utility of the above remarks; and the house-builder will do well to attend to them, for not only will his house be more comfortable, but he will be himself a considerable gainer from the fewer materials required in the construction of the roof. Even in the burning climate of New South Wales, a wooden house, with a roof properly constructed, may be rendered a tolerable habitation, and yet, notwithstanding this very simple mode of avoiding extreme heat, it is common in Sydney to see houses with a very high pitch of roof. Even a tent is, in a hot country, intolerable, simply because most tents are made with highly pitched roofs; were they not so, the heat would be reflected from them, and the temperature would be delightful.

Colonial houses are generally of brick or of wood; but there are two other modes of building, which for economy, durability, and appearance, if skilfully constructed, are equal to either. The first method is called cobb building, and is extensively practised in Devonshire and the southern counties generally, even for houses of a superior class: the other method is called pise, and is commonly employed in Italy and other parts of the Continent. These houses are also fireproof, and when coated with cement or rough-cast neatly whitewashed, present a very agreeable appearance.

The cobb walls in Devonshire are two feet in thickness, and the material employed in their formation is earth mixed with chopped straw, to give it tenacity. These, after having been well beaten together, are laid upon a stone or brick foundation, raised from three to four feet from the ground; upon this is laid the prepared earth, a layer of which is enclosed in a frame to about the same height, and well trodden down; this layer must be carried all round the building: this is allowed some time to settle and acquire consistence; another layer is now laid on, but of less thickness, each succeeding layer diminishing in thickness as it increases in height. As soon as the second layer is completed, the first is pared

EMIGRANTS' HOUSES.

down by a cobb-parer (an iron instrument resembling a baker's peel) so as to be even with it, and so on with the others: the walls will thus, when finished, present an almost imperceptible slant, agreeable rather than otherwise in appearance, and sufficient to throw off any weight which might damage the walls.

At all the openings of doors and windows, lintels of wood are introduced, of sufficient length, width, and thickness, to support the wall above when the openings are cut out after the building is covered in. The windows and doors being cut, the reveals are pared down to an even face, and then dressed with fine plaster, after which the frames are properly bedded, and the whole stopped and finished off.

This is all the process requisite, and any two farm-labourers, with an eye sufficiently practised to form a good wheat or haystack, can build the house. For garden-fences, outhouses, pig-sties, &c, cobb forms the most durable and economical material, and a couple of layers in height are amply sufficient for most of these purposes. Nothing can exceed the neatness of a homestead thus constructed.

Pise is a concrete, and is erected with a frame. The best earth is clay, mixed either naturally or artificially with fine gravel. Any earth which will sustain itself with a small slope, may, however, be used. After being thoroughly beaten, the earth must be passed through a screen, and all stones beyond the size of a hazel-nut must be taken away. If the earth be not moist, it must be watered, and turned with a shovel till it has acquired such a consistence as that, if a handful of it be thrown on a board, it will retain its shape. A sufficient quantity should be prepared at once to suffice for the whole building. Pise walls, twenty-four inches thick, formed in the spring, will be sufficiently dry by the end of summer to cover with a coat of plaster, which should not be applied too early, or it will not adhere properly.

Concrete, formed of lime, coarse gravel, sand, and water, may be used in the same way, and will form walls equal to

EMIGRANTS' HOUSES.

stone; but the box or frame in which the walls are formed must be very strong, or it will not resist the expansion of the materials. Fine sand should be used in the proportion of ordinary mortar. When the materials are thoroughly worked, the lime combines with the fine sand only, and cements the pebbles of the gravel together. The gravel itself possesses no qualities of adhesion, otherwise than as it is cemented by the mortar with which it is mixed. Brick chimneys should be used with all the above methods.

The following description will enable a common carpenter to make a frame which will answer for all the above materials. Ten or twelve feet deals should be used, their joints being ploughed and tongued, and further strengthened with clamps fastened by clenched nails on the outside. Four deals, of three feet in height, will be the best. When these sides or frames are used, they should rest on cross pieces which pass entirely through the thickness of the wall. The ends of these must project, so as to allow a mortice in each to receive the uprights necessary to hold the sides in their places. These timbers, four inches square and five feet long, form the tenon, and should be sufficiently high above the sides to be secured by ropes; when they are placed in the mortice, they must be secured by a wedge, driven also into the mortice beside them. The sides are now secured at the top by a strong rope made tight to the uprights over the frame, and twisted by passing a piece of wood through the two sides of the rope. If this be properly done, the wall will be as firm as a rock.

The earth is now thrown in after wetting the parts about the timbers, to enable them to be separated and the cross pieces drawn out of the wall with greater facility. A rammer of sound wood is used, ten inches high, and six inches by five in the middle, diminishing in thickness downwards till it terminates in a rounded edge. Into this a handle is inserted, four feet in length. When the rammer is used, the workman should turn it round at every stroke, and thus the earth is solidly united.

SITUATION OF A DWELLING.

Shingle, such as is found on the beach in Wellington, would answer admirably. Six parts of this, with sifted sand, and one part of well-burnt lime fresh from the kiln, would make a substantial building, as would also equal quantities of properly compounded mortar and clean gravel. A variety of materials may, however, be used, so that in few places are they wanting when required.

The following observations are worthy of strict attention, be the emigrant's cottage formed of what material it may. His house should be placed upon gravel, sand, or loam, as these soils are most easily drained, and drainage is an object in a well-watered country like New Zealand, where the rankness of the vegetation is such as to cause dampness and putrefactive gases, if not properly guarded against. Streams abound in New Zealand, and such a locality as will command one may in almost all cases be chosen. But the emigrant should not suffer himself to be so enamoured of the beauty of those streams as to place his cottage immediately on the bank of one. By choosing a convenient elevation, all the uses of the stream are retained, and the air is better than in the bottom of the valley. Another important point, too, is gained, – the sewerage is more easily drained off. The light, too, is better, and a more cheerful prospect is obtained. These essentials have a greater influence on health and spirits than may commonly be believed. A northern or northeastern aspect should also be chosen; the warmth of such a position is greater, and the light more abundant. The reader must recollect, that in New Zealand the sun is to the north, and not to the southward as in Europe. The garden and homestead of every cottage should be perfectly cleared of timber, with the exception of ornamental shrubs, which abound, and may either be left standing, or transplanted to such spots as good taste may point out. No English garden, however expensively kept up, can for a moment vie with the beauty of a cottager's garden in New Zealand in the beauty of its shrubs, to say nothing of the vines, melons, Cape goose-

VENTILATION.

berries, peaches, all English and many tropical fruits, which will grow anywhere in the greatest luxuriance.

The ventilation of the house, the want of which forms the great defect of English houses, should be strictly attended to, as conducive, not only to health, but in a high degree to comfort also.

CHAPTER XIV. THE OUTFIT.

ADVICE IN OUTFITTING.

CHAPTER XIV.

THE OUTFIT.

Advice in outfitting – Choice of clothing – Lists of necessary articles – Trunks – Bedding.

THERE are few things which give an emigrant more trouble than his outfit, and few which, if properly gone about, need give him less. This confusion generally arises from a multitude of counsellors, in whom, in such a case, there certainly is not wisdom. All sorts of vague and indefinite opinions are given and listened to, from those of the over-careful, who would burden their friends with all sorts of useless contrivances, to those of the over-economical, whose suggestions would often put them to serious inconvenience. The simplest way, perhaps, of imparting the requisite information, will be, to tell the emigrant what he should avoid, and then what he should do.

1st. Avoid all cheap shops: by the parties professing to keep such, the country emigrant is considered fair game, and is in most cases plundered. In a competition such as London compels, no person can sell goods of equal quality lower than another; therefore let the bargain-hunter take this as a maxim, that wherever any tradesman professes to supply emigrants fifteen or twenty per cent. cheaper than others of standing in the same trade, his word is not to be depended upon, but that the worthlessness of his goods may be depended upon. A

ADVICE.

respectable house is careful of its reputation, and hence its customers are well served at a fair profit. The proprietor of a cheap shop never cares to see his customer a second time, and plunders them accordingly; he calculates on a succession of new dupes, and neither has nor wishes for regular customers. Parsimony, and a wish to obtain goods under their value, on the part of the customer, is always met with duplicity on the part of the dealer; – the latter makes a large profit by his cheap goods, and the former is, in the end, a heavy loser by purchasing them, as he will find to his cost, whenever he comes to make use of them.

2ndly. Do not let the outfitter, or any one else, persuade you into buying things you do not require. He will perhaps tell you, that they are indispensable, and that you ought to have them. But do not listen to his advice. You will, in no case, require a single article beyond what is contained in the following lists, which, deducting the stock of clothing already in your possession, should be at once ordered and packed in strong trunks or boxes. All trouble respecting your outfit will then be over, and may be effected almost at an hour's notice, and no small amount of money may be saved for colonial purposes.

3rdly. Remember that you cannot replace articles in new colonies so favourably as you can get them at home. Some you cannot replace at all, though here they are easily procurable; and much future annoyance and disappointment may be avoided by a little circumspection in this respect. To those who are in a condition to command little conveniences for their families, it is unpardonable to neglect their comfort.

We will now tell the emigrant what he should do.

Choose a respectable, well-established outfitter. It is a common opinion that anything is good enough for colonial purposes; but this is a great mistake; for though dress as the term is understood here, is the last thing considered in a colony, yet the goodness of the materials is a very im-

CHOICE OF CLOTHING.

portant point. Clothes, horribly made – linen, which will hardly endure a second washing – are not good enough for a colony; but these will invariably be the result of cheap purchases.

Expensive or rich clothing is not required. A dandy would be quite out of place in a colony, and it would not be difficult to prognosticate the end of his colonial career. Not that society does not require propriety of dress, upon all fitting occasions. It does so, and no one who does not conform to it would long be tolerated; but it ends here. Upon ordinary occasions, the roughness of a colonist's pursuits suggests clothing that will stand rough usage; and it must be good to stand this. The better class of colonist is always distinguished by plainness, but excellence, of costume. If ever a man is seen, in his ordinary avocations, in a dress unsuitable for those avocations, he is, in general, what is commonly termed, a "ne'er do well;" and his example is by no means to be followed.

Even if your means are limited, put up with a short stock of good things, in preference to an ample stock of trashy things, which, to say nothing of their discomfort in wearing, will actually cost you more money in the end. You must necessarily depend upon your outfitter; and if he be not a respectable man, how can you do so? A considerable knowledge of business is requisite for the selection of a colonist's outfit, and none but experienced tradesmen can execute such orders properly. It is easy for cheap tradesmen to produce articles which, in appearance, are equal to the best, and in this deception lies the secret of the people who vend them.

The following outfit for a labouring man and his wife, is the least which, under any circumstances, should be procured. It of course does not include those articles of clothing which may already be in their possession: –

LISTS FOR OUTFIT.

No. I.

FOR THE HUSBAND.

18 coloured Shirts
2 Guernsey Shirts
6 pairs Worsted Stockings
12 pairs Cotton Socks
1 pair strong Fustian Trousers
8 pairs strong Canvass do.
1 Fustian Jacket and Waistcoat
1 Pea Jacket
Cloth Coat, Waistcoat, and Trousers
Cloth Cap
Flock Mattress, Bolster, and Pillow
6 pairs Cotton Sheets
1 pair Blankets
2 Quilts
6 rough Towels
2 Table Cloths
1 pair strong Shoes
1 pair light do.
6 lbs. Yellow Soap
4 lbs. Marine do.
Metal Wash-hand Basin
Comb, Brush, Knife and Fork, &c.
Sea Chest

The Guernsey shirts will serve him, for a considerable portion of the voyage, as jackets also, and he will soon learn from the sailors how to clean them. Within the tropics neither shoes nor stockings are at all necessary, seamen never wear them in these latitudes.

No. II.

FOR THE WIFE.

12 Calico Chemises
4 Petticoats
2 Flannel Petticoats
4 Flannel Waistcoats
18 pairs Cotton Stockings
2 pairs Shoes

1 pair Boots
3 Cotton Dresses
2 Bonnets
6 Towels
Tapes, Needles, Cotton, Clothes Bag

Opportunities will occur on the voyage of catching rain water as it runs from the sails; the emigrant's wife should always take advantage of this, as it will add materially to her own comfort and that of her husband, to wash as much

LISTS FOR OUTFIT.

as possible of a limited outfit. Every facility will be afforded for this purpose, but it must not be too much relied on, in the purchase of necessary articles of clothing, before leaving England.

The following list is on a more extended scale, and whenever the means of the labouring emigrant will command it, no article, at any rate of his wife's outfit, should be omitted: –

No. III.

HUSBAND.

18 coloured Shirts
6 white do.
13 pairs Worsted Stockings
12 pairs Cotton Socks
1 pair strong Fustian Trousers
6 pairs strong Canvass do.
2 Fustian Jackets and Waistcoats
Pea Coat and Trousers
South-wester
Cloth Cap
2 pairs strong Shoes
2 pairs light do.
Suit of Cloth Clothes Bedding, &c, as before

No. IV. WIFE.

18 Calico Chemises
6 Petticoats
3 Flannel do.
4 Flannel Waistcoats
24 pairs Cotton Stockings
4 pairs Shoes
2 pairs Boots
4 Cotton Dresses
2 Bonnets
1 Cloak
12 yards Flannel
20 yards strong Calico
Variety of Haberdashery
Other things as before

Many other trifling matters will naturally suggest themselves, which are not necessary to be included in an outfit list. The emigrant will do well to take all of the above list which his means will afford. It will free him from further expense for clothing in the colony for a considerable period, so that the surplus of his wages may be at once devoted to establishing himself on a firm footing in his own cottage and garden.

We shall not attempt in any case to give the outfit necessary for children. The careful housewife, in contemplation of emigrating, will have devoted herself to this point for some time previous to departure. Children need not, however, occasion

LISTS FOR OUTFIT.

much trouble in this respect. It is of no consequence how plainly they are clothed, nor, after they have passed the seas adjacent to England, is the lightness of their clothing to be regarded, being rather advantageous to their health than otherwise. Great attention should, however, in all cases be paid to the cleanliness of their attire.

There are few labouring men, who cannot obtain the half-worn garments of friends or relatives, upon such an occasion as emigrating to a colony. These would save them much expense, and the making them up anew would form an employment for women and girls on board. The emigrant will do well not to lose sight of this hint. To him especially, nothing should be useless. Far be it from us to advocate anything which might appear like begging for such things, only let him not refuse such aid, from a false pride to which his position may not entitle him. He cannot do better than leave this behind him together with his poverty.

The following list, suitable for a bachelor cabin passenger, is abundant. More will only be found cumbersome: –

18 plain Calico Shirts
18 coloured Shirts
12 Long-cloth Shirts, linen fronts
13 Night Caps
13 Night Shirts
6 Flannel Waistcoats
6 Merino do.
3 pairs Flannel Drawers
13 pairs Cotton do.
12 Cotton or Muslin Cravats
3 black Silk Handkerchiefs
48 pairs brown Cotton Socks
12 pairs Worsted Socks
48 Pocket Handkerchiefs
Assortment of Gloves
1 Dressing-gown
3 Blouses
36 Linen Towels
13 Russia Duck-Jackets
18 pairs Duck Trousers
1 Shooting Jacket
Pilot Cloth Pea Coat and Trousers
Cloth Clothes ad libitum
Cloth Cap and Manilla Hat
4 Jean Waistcoats
2 Cashmerette Waistcoats
8 pairs Sheets and Pillow-cases
3 Blankets
3 Counterpanes
Beaver Hat
Clothes-bag
Toilet Articles and Soap
13 lbs. Spermaceti Candles, Candlestick
Hair Mattress, Bolster, and Pillows
Cabin Fittings, Pewter, and Crokery-ware
3 Bullock-Trunks

OUTFIT FOR A LADY.

Other articles will suggest themselves, according to the wants and habits of the individual. The baggage is kept in a convenient place in the hold, and is hoisted between decks three days a week, or oftener. The passenger then transfers what he requires to his cabin, and returns to the hold the linen he has worn. Such articles only are enumerated as will be required for the voyage; it rests with the parties themselves as to the providing household linen and other requisites for their residence in the colony. The best plan is, to make the outfit complete in this respect, packing the more delicate portion of it in strong boxes lined with tin, and being careful that the weather is not damp when the packing takes place, or if so, that it be done in a heated room; otherwise the damp of an English atmosphere which has been packed with them, will, in a passage through the tropics, cause mildew, which will utterly spoil fine cloth, silk dresses, and the like. It is, however, safer to trust these matters to the outfitter, or to an experienced packer.

No. VII.

OUTFIT TOR A LADY.

48 Calico or Cambric Chemises
36 Calico Night Dresses
36 Night Caps
24 Cambric Slips
24 Calico Middle Petticoats
3 Flannel Petticoats
1 Horse-hair Petticoat
24 Pine Flannel Petticoats
24 pair of Cambric Trousers
48 Pocket Handkerchiefs
48 Huckaback Hand Towels
12 Bathing Towels
24 pairs of fine Cotton Stockings
14 pairs of Thread Stockings
12 pairs of white Silk Hose
2 pairs of black Silk Hose 2 coloured Dressing Gowns
1 coloured or white Flannel Dressing Gown, warm
8 white Muslin ditto
4 coloured Morning Dresses
8 Muslin Dresses
4 Dinner Dresses
2 Silk Dresses, and 1 Satin Dress is also desirable
2 Muslin-de-laine or Chalie Dresses
3 pairs of Stays
1 Cloak
8 pairs of Shoes
2 Bonnets Shawls
Fancy Handkerchiefs
Fancy Aprons
Capes, Collars, &c.

OUTFIT FOR A LADY

Ribbons, Gauzes, &c.
Haberdashery, Needles, &c.
1 Work-Box
13 pairs of white Kid Gloves
19 pairs of coloured Long white Kid Gloves
34 pairs of Thread or Silk Gloves
13 pairs of Thread or lace Gloves
12 pairs of Lace Mittens
Long Lace Mittens
1 Clothes Bag
12 Dusters
8 pairs of Calico Sheets
8 Pillow Cases
3 Blankets
3 Counterpanes
20 or 30 yards of Fine Flannel
6 Tooth Brushes
3 Nail Brushes
4 Hair Brushes
Coombs
6 boxes of Tooth Powder
4 lbs. brown Windsor Soap
4 lbs. of Violet Powder
1 good Sponge
Pomades or Oil for the Hair
Eau de Cologne
Dressing Case
Writing Case, Paper, &c.
Books
1 Ship Couch, with Drawers
1 Wash-hand Stand
1 Light Cane Chair
1 Looking-glass
1 Cabin Lamp, and 6 lbs. of Candles
1 Foot Bath and Tin Can
1 Brush, Dust-pan, &c.
China and Glass

It must not be understand that the whole of this latter outfit will be required for the voyage. A moderately good silk dress, one or two muslin-de-laine dresses, three or four morning cotton dresses, and one or two dressing-gowns, will be all that is required, and the rest should be carefully packed in tin boxes. Those who do not like to go to the expense of this, will find boxes lined with the strong, coarse brown paper, called pitch paper, answer the same purpose. The chief requisites in packing for a voyage are, that the clothes should be perfectly dry, and that the sea air should not find admission to them. It is also a matter of importance that no dresses which have been worn should be packed with new dresses: old dresses should be selected for the voyage, for which they are quite sufficient.

The cabin is, in all cases, furnished at the expense of the occupant. It sometimes happens in passenger-ships that the bed-places are already fixed, but this is only in the poop; to secure these, an early application is necessary. The articles mentioned in the preceding list form a sufficiently complete

TRUNKS. – BEDDING.

establishment; but the furniture of the cabin must depend upon the requirements of parties occupying it.

The best kind of package is the bullock trunk, even though not afterwards required for travelling: they are very strong, and impervious to sea air. Such trunks may be obtained of India outfitters. Leather trunks are very expensive, and are themselves liable to mildew. If bullock trunks are not taken, an ordinary sea-chest, such as is used by sailors, forms the best package. Thin wooden boxes should always be avoided.

Emigrants should take out with them bedding, blankets, &c, for their use in the colony, as high prices will have to be paid for them there. Both the bedding and the clothing should be moderately warm, but nothing more. New Zealand is neither a hot nor a cold country, and there are no extremes of either heat or cold at any period; neither are there any sudden changes of temperature. No furniture whatever should be taken, as it may easily and cheaply be procured in the colony: as a general rule, the emigrant should be as little encumbered with baggage as possible.

CHAPTER XV. FIRST STEPS IN THE COLONY.

CONDUCT ON THE VOYAGE.

CHAPTER XV.

FIRST STEPS IN THE COLONY.

Conduct on the voyage – Choice of occupation – Cultivation of the soil – Small farms – Agricultural labourers – Sheep and cattle farming – Squatting – Wages – Economical living – Useless expenditure.

OF the voyage it is almost unnecessary to speak. Every one will perceive the necessity of conducting himself in such a way as shall contribute to the discipline and good order of the ship, and, by consequence, to his own comfort and safety also. To the labouring man, the propriety of his conduct is a matter of considerable moment. In the cabin passengers of the ship, and the class to which they belong, he sees his future employers, and on the opinions they form of him, and the reports which they will afterwards make of his conduct, whether for good or for evil, depends much of his future success. The writer has known numerous instances, in which the good conduct of the emigrant has led to a connection between himself and the cabin passengers, which has soon rendered him independent of labour for others, by giving him the means, and above all the credit, which has induced others to place such confidence in him, so as speedily to put him in a condition far beyond his anticipations. A very little reflection will show the emigrant that in proceeding to a colony where his labour and good character are in demand, the better his capabilities and his character, the greater the

CHOICE OF OCCUPATION.

demand, and also the remuneration, will be for hi3 services. "Which are the best men in your ship?" is the invariable query put to the captain and the passengers by the resident colonists, and according to the report will be the demand for the services of such. These remarks apply equally to the cabin passengers as to the labouring emigrant. A new colony is a complete little Pedlington – a very hot-bed of tittle-tattle – and in less than a week from his arrival, the conduct of every cabin passenger on board will have become known all over the settlement, and will have been appreciated accordingly; a circumstance not unfrequently at once deciding the position of the party in colonial society.

We will here repeat our caution to the emigrant not to be in too great a hurry on deciding upon his future occupation. Time spent in looking about him will be time well spent. All sorts of apparently lucrative schemes may be presented to him; but he will do well to be guided solely by his own judgment, after sufficient observation to give solidity to that judgment.

His first attention will be turned towards the cultivation of the soil. This is the foundation of all wealth. Other and more seductive opportunities may offer, which will enable him to reside within the precincts of the various towns. Our advice would be, avoid such opportunities, however tempting they may at first sight appear. As in other places, they may lead to a living, but to nothing else. Having made up his mind as to locality, the emigrant should at once take to the bush. By this his energies will be devoted to the most profitable pursuit, and his capital to its legitimate object.

If he have purchased land previous to his departure, he will, as a matter of course, at once go upon it. If he purchase it from parties in the colony, he should avoid the very common mistake of getting too much land for his capital. Land is not wealth, till labour has made it such. The man who expends his capital in the purchase of a hundred acres of land, and by so doing has not left himself with the means of cultivating

SMALL FARMS.

ten acres, does not act wisely, and is not so well off as he who purchases ten acres, and reserves to himself the means of bringing it thoroughly under cultivation. As a general rule, every man should possess ten pounds of capital for every acre he possesses, and this supposes him to labour with his own hands in reducing it from a state of nature.

Yet even this estimate should not be carried too far. Whatever may be a man's capital, he will find that a hundred acres, or at most two hundred, will be as much as he ought, under any circumstances, to attempt to bring into cultivation. Of course, the land required for the purpose of sheep-farming is not included in this. There is abundance of natural pasture around him for this purpose, which will require no outlay on his part for many years to come. We allude to arable land alone, and if in the first seven years of his colonial exertions, the emigrant have cleared, fenced, drained, and brought into good condition a hundred acres of land, he will have acquired an estate of no mean profit and importance, especially as compared with his original outlay. He will then have found himself and his family in a position from which he cannot easily be displaced. And this position is in the power of every man to attain who can land in the colony with two hundred and fifty pounds in his pocket, if it be rightly used.

It is the same thing collectively in a colony, as individually in a denizen of a colony. Take Western Australia as an instance – a colony possessing great capabilities, but utterly ruined by the ignorance and avarice of its founders. Less than a thousand labourers were placed upon a million acres of land, and the result has been, the non-cultivation of more than an insignificant portion of it, and the non-development of any of its natural resources. Had a thousand labourers been placed upon ten thousand acres, – before the expiration of the second year of their occupancy, every foot of it would have been in the condition of a garden; and with succeeding years succeeding tens of thousands of acres would have been reclaimed from a state of nature. The colony would, in fact,

AGRICULTURAL LABOUR.

have been highly flourishing, instead of being regarded, as it is in this country, as a place to be avoided.

To apply the same remarks nearer home. Every agricultural emigrant must have observed, that wherever a man became tenant of a farm, without means to cultivate it properly, he was always poor, and could pay his rent with difficulty, if at all; but that whenever a man's means exceeded that which was requisite for the proper cultivation of his land, however small might be the quantity, he was always in prosperous circumstances. The emigrant has only to apply this, his previous experience, to himself, in a colony, and the result will, in all cases, be found to exceed his expectations.

To the labouring emigrant, accustomed to a country life and to country labour, we would say, continue, if possible, in the same pursuits. An agricultural labourer engaging himself in town employment is lost to the colony, and in many cases to himself also. His hand becomes "out," to use a country term, and he afterwards turns with difficulty to the employment to which he has been accustomed. Town emigrants are best fitted for town employments: their constitutions and habits are often unfitted for the successful pursuit of agriculture; but every man who can handle a spade, or an axe, should at once take to the woods, and employ himself in clearing land. Agricultural labourers may at first gain less wages by this, but they will gain advantages which are out of the reach of a town labourer. No country employer will refuse to sell or to lease to his labourer a portion of his land, which the latter can cultivate at his leisure, or after his ordinary occupation is ended. The desire of the labourer to possess his own cottage and garden will be to his employer an earnest of industry and perseverance which he will encourage for his own sake; while the possession of a home of his own will abundantly compensate the working man for a little less wages than he might have gained in town, where his leisure hours, instead of being made to add to his own comfort and that of his family, may only be spent

SHEEP AND CATTLE FARMING.

in dissipating that which he has earned; in which case he will be able to add little to the comfort of either.

If he have an industrious wife and a family of children, he will find his little homestead grow under his hands, without any great additional labour on his part, and he will thus soon be in a state of comparative independence. If the labourer be not a married man, let him become so previous to his leaving England; he need be in no fear that he cannot afford to keep a wife in the colony, even though he land without a shilling in his pocket. She will be a helpmate to him in every sense of the word, and with frugality, temperance, and industry, neither will have cause to regret their change of condition. It will be his own fault if, within a couple of years from his landing in the colony, he does not possess a home which is, in every sense of the term, his own property.

One of the chief points for an agricultural emigrant is, whether he will turn his attention to tillage, or to sheep and cattle farming. The former is, perhaps, the best basis on which to work, and is liable to no fluctuations; the latter is becoming the more lucrative pursuit, but is liable to fluctuations from the quantity of stock brought at times into the market from the neighbouring Australian colonies. In Australia, sheep-farming is a very precarious pursuit, from the prevalence of the disease called catarrh, which will sweep off whole flocks in an incredibly short space of time, and against which there is no guarding. In New Zealand, the ordinary diseases of sheep are unknown, and no new disease has been experienced. Sheep-farming is, therefore, as certain a pursuit as tillage itself. Much will, however, depend upon the previous habits and inclinations of the settler himself, as to which occupation he may choose. If he decide upon grazing, let him get his sheep, which will cost him about twelve shillings a head under ordinary circumstances, and a few cattle, good breeds of which will cost him about five pounds a head, and go away into the bush, not so far that he will deprive himself of the advan-

SQUATTING.

tage of vicinity to a town where he can dispose of his produce, and procure necessaries at the same time; nor so near to a town that he will intrude upon others, or they upon him. He cannot do better than settle himself down in close vicinity to a tribe of natives: he need not be afraid that they will either eat him or his cattle; but if he treat them with kindness and firmness, he will soon find out that they have become valuable neighbours, and very useful adjuncts, at a small cost, to his establishment.

If he decide upon becoming a grazier, let him purchase or lease some distant section from a settler, or from the agent of some absentee landholder, for the purpose of forming his cattle-station, taking care that it shall be as near to the outside of the settlement as possible, so that he may have the run of the unclaimed land beyond him; or if it be within the settlement, let him take care that it abut upon hilly land which has not been given out, when he will possess the same advantage of an extensive sheep-walk. The hills of New Zealand abound with the finest pasture, and will eventually form by no means the least valuable portion of the country.

If he do not choose to purchase or lease land, he may become a squatter: that is, he may set himself down beyond the boundaries of the settlement altogether. This he may do without going far from any of the settlements. New Zealand is not like Australia in this respect, where a squatter must go many hundred miles, and altogether beyond the reach or the influence of civilization, before he finds unoccupied pasturage. In the case of squatting, it is advisable to pay a small but accurately defined tribute to the resident natives for permission to settle near them. The squatter will then be secure from molestation of any kind, and will find his tribute repaid tenfold in some shape or other. Neither let him feel annoyed at what he may consider their freedom, either of speech or of action. It is nothing more than their ignorance of the customs and habits of civilized life; and no sooner do they become aware that such freedoms are displeasing, than they imme-

ECONOMICAL LIVING.

diately cease from using them. Whatever may have been said of the New Zealander, he is one of "nature's gentlemen," both in feeling and deportment, and is, to the full, as sensible a man as the settler, whatever may be his own estimation of himself. By none can more valuable advice, in many colonial matters, be given than by the native, and by none is it more freely accorded. The writer speaks of the natives, not from favourable specimens of the race, but as he invariably found them in all communications with them. The agriculturist or sheep-farmer who does not choose them for his neighbours, will be unmindful of his own interests, notwithstanding their apparent uncouthness. He has only to guard against lowering himself in their estimation, of which they would certainly take advantage, and against allowing them to "get on the blind side of him," as the phrase is, which would be as certainly followed by imposition in all bargains.

It is difficult to give any advice to mechanics on landing in the colony. They will naturally get the highest wages they can, and as soon as they can. Beyond this, all must be left to their own sagacity: their services are always required. It is very common for them speedily to save enough to get land of their own, when they generally combine its tillage with their own trade. It is by no means unfrequent that, having effected this, they turn farmers altogether.

The last caution we shall give to emigrants on landing is, a close regard to expenditure in living. From the false pride inherent in most people, it is more than probable that the new settler will not lower, but rather increase, the style of living adopted by him at his outset. Hence, it is of great importance to him to live frugally at first. He can enlarge his mode of living, if so inclined, at any time, should his improved circumstances warrant it; but it is by no means so easy to diminish it, when once adopted. Let him bear in mind the ordinary colonial calculation, that money invested in sheep or cattle doubles itself every third year, and that every present pound spent unnecessarily is a future loss of many pounds.

USELESS EXPENDITURE.

The day will arrive when he need not trouble himself with such calculations, but till that day does arrive, he will do well to bear the maxim in close remembrance upon all occasions.

The amount of money spent in this way – in taking out useless lumber in the shape of what people are pleased to call necessaries, in speculative investments at home of almost equally useless merchandize, in short, in all which the ancient Romans very significantly termed "impedimenta" – is enormous. If such amounts were steadily devoted to the increase of stock, to the cultivation of the land, and to the development of the resources of a colony, how different, in most cases, would be the result?

CHAPTER XVI. AGRICULTURE AND LAND-CLEARING.

AGRICULTURE.

CHAPTER XVI.

AGRICULTURE AND LAND-CLEARING.

Remarks by a backwoodsman – Experimental agriculture – Modes of clearing land – Canadian method – Combination of labour.

WE cannot commence a few remarks on this subject more appropriately than with the following remarks from a practical American backwoodsman. A close attention to them, in new agriculture in particular, cannot but be productive of advantage.

"Agriculture furnishes a healthful and profitable employment. No employment conduces in so high a degree to preserve the moral health of the community. Where can rational liberty find a safer asylum than in a country where the great body of the people are actively engaged in agricultural industry and in agricultural improvements? Every branch of industry, except agriculture, is liable to be over-done, and when this happens, distress, more or less severe, is sure to follow. Who ever heard of a national distress occasioned by a spirited agriculture? If the merchants who imported silks and other gewgaws from Europe, and by so doing involved people in debt, had been skilful, industrious farmers, who will pretend that the country would have suffered as it now does? Science is indispensable in order to the success of agriculture; but experiment is the great lever of improvement. The business of science or theory is to reason on facts; who can be a

EXPERIMENTAL FARMING.

good farmer without reasoning? The business of experiment is to test the truth of theory, and thereby come at certain knowledge. Every farmer who tries experiment in agriculture for the public good, deserves the gratitude of the whole country. But individual efforts are insufficient, there must he union of efforts in order to meet with great success. Suppose that one hundred farmers in different parts of the state can be found who would be willing to appropriate each one half acre of land for the purpose of trying some experiment in the culture of wheat. Suppose these one hundred farmers can act in concert, and each agree to try some different experiment, and continue their efforts we will say for five years, varying the mode of experiment each year; only think! five hundred different experiments skilfully conducted: who can tell what such a course of management may accomplish?"

The former denizen of a town, if he give up his mind altogether to agricultural pursuits, is generally found to make greater progress than a professed agriculturist. He knows nothing at starting, and in this he has a decided advantage over a man whose agricultural habits are fixed. He has nothing to unlearn, which the other has. The one progresses in the ABC of his future calling, whilst the other is literally floundering in the mud of his past experience.

The best interests of a farmer in a virgin soil, are comprised in one word – "experimentalize." Never mind any man's opinions, for no man has had sufficient experience to form one worth listening to. The greatest talkers upon agricultural subjects in a new colony are invariably the most ignorant. The native who pokes a hole in the ground with a stick and drops a potato therein, treading it down with his foot, will produce a better crop, in quality certainly, than the farmer who proceeds, secundum artem, to improve a soil which, from its over-fertility, requires disimproving. The question is how to improve upon the native method, rather than how to improve upon known systems. The native is generally very free with his advice upon his own methods of agriculture, and this is

MODES OF CLEARING LAND.

worth listening to; but we will not continue our own advice upon the subject, lest we prove the truth of our own apothegms.

A modification of the process employed in Canada would appear to be best adapted for clearing land in New Zealand. The practice there is not to burn the forest indiscriminately, as is often done in New Zealand, but first to cut the underbrush, and suffer this to dry, so that it may ignite the more readily. This is then burnt off, and the trees afterwards chopped. In New Zealand, it would appear, the better plan is to cut the underwood first, and suffer this to dry whilst the timber is being chopped. By the time the latter operation is performed, and the branches cut, the whole will be in a fit state for burning.

An easier method than that of chopping, is to use the crosscut saw. The writer often employed this method in New Zealand, and found that two men would cut through an ordinary tree in about twenty minutes, so that an acre of forest land may soon be laid bare. Two more men also with the cross-cut saw will separate the branches almost as fast as the other two saw down the trees. If the whole mass be suffered to lie for a few months, the fire will then clear away all but the stumps. The stumps themselves it would be folly to clear away till they were so far rotted as to permit being dragged out with oxen. This will be in about two years. From the peculiarity in the New Zealand forest trees of having no taproot, the clearing out of the stumps can be effected much more easily than in most other colonies. The branches of the roots, which extend to a great distance from the tree, but for the most part along the surface of the ground, are easily divided with the axe, and decay thereby accelerated.

The only objection to firing the bush is, that you may interfere with the arrangements of the proprietor of a neighbouring section, as, unless proper precautions are taken, the fire will extend beyond your own. It would be to the interest

COMBINATION OF LABOUR.

of all proprietors of land to join with their neighbours in extirpating the forest. It is matter of surprise that the system of "logging bees," as the phrase goes in Canada, has not obtained in New Zealand, and the more so, as many Canadian people are resident there. It is a system of combination of labour. The whole district turns out for the purpose of destroying the timber on one man's section, he being expected to render the like assistance in his turn, when called upon by those who have aided him. The person thus aided by his neighbours gives a feast somewhat in the same way as still obtains in some rural districts in England, at what is called "harvest home" and "sheep-shearing." It is astonishing what a mass of forest will disappear in a single day under this system. Fifty or a hundred hands make quick work when it is thus set about in earnest, and with a neighbourly feeling; and the consumption of food at the feast, after the day's work is done, is of trifling value, compared, with the services performed. By the adoption of such a system, much good is effected in every way. Not only is the land speedily cleared, but kind and neighbourly feelings are promoted, which would be much more conducive to the happiness of all, than the solitary selfishness which is the characteristic of our nation in the colonies no less than at home.

CHAPTER XVII. THE AUCKLAND GOLD FIELDS.

DISCOVERY OF GOLD.

CHAPTER XVII.

THE AUCKLAND GOLD FIELDS.

Discovery of gold – Rev. Mr. Clarke's opinion – Rich specimen – Government regulations – Visit of the Lieutenant-Governor – Payments to natives – Progress of the diggings – Gold at Arataonga – Committee's report – Lieut-Governor's report.

SINCE this work was written, a productive gold field has been found in the vicinity of Auckland, viz., near Coromandel Harbour at the mouth of the Thames, a large river running into the Waipa country. This gold field was discovered by a Mr. Ring, a former settler, who had just returned from California, and, like Mr. Hargraves in New South Wales, was struck with the geological similarity of the district to that of the American continent. Gold has been found in sufficient quantities to render a thorough exploration necessary, but, in consequence of the lands belonging to the natives, much difficulty will be experienced by the Government in obtaining possession so that the extent of the gold mines may be properly investigated.

It is now well known that the gold of New South Wales was brought to light by Mr. Hargraves, a returned settler from California; but, previous to this, its existence had for many years been predicted by the Rev. Mr. Clarke in various ways. Singularly enough, the same scientific gentleman, as late as July last, expressed a similar opinion as to the gold-producing capa-

REV. MR. CLARKE'S OPINION.

bilities of New Zealand, in a letter to a gentleman at Wellington. The following is an extract: –

St. Leonard's, New South Wales, July 7, 1852.

"I have long been impressed with the persuasion that New Zealand must contain a portion of those more ancient formations which, in this country, are found to be auriferous. Everything in the physical geography of these countries induces my conclusion; and I am not at all put out of conceit with the circumstances attending a late alleged discovery of gold and subsequent disappointment.

"Since my return, I have had given to me for examination some specimens of quartz from, I believe, the vicinity of Wellington. One of these is very ferruginous; and on applying the file to the surface, three or four patches of gold made their appearance; so that I have positive proof of the auriferous character of some of your rocks. I doubt not that search, properly conducted, in the granite and slate regions, will be rewarded. "W. B. CLARKE."

Of the fact there is no doubt, and little less of the productiveness of the mines. The following intelligence will give all that is yet known on the subject: –

Considerable interest has been excited by the exhibition of a remarkably fine specimen of auriferous quartz sent by Lieut.-Governor Wynyard from Coromandel, and conveyed by Dr. Thomson of the 58th Regiment. This specimen differs most materially in appearance from any of the gold-bearing quartz of Australia or California which we have ever beheld. It is much darker in the colour; and, instead of showing the gold in specks or crystals, the precious metal is completely disseminated throughout the mass. So rich is this specimen that they who are sceptical of New Zealand proving an available gold field are exceedingly suspicious of deception, many feeling disposed to pronounce this specimen a foreign importation. We are not of those who think so. The small quantity of gold that has

ARRANGEMENT WITH THE NATIVES.

yet come to market is, in our opinion, no argument whatever against its possibly abundant existence. As far as we can learn there are, as yet, but four parties at the diggings, and these not so well found in mining apparatus as to warrant a confident opinion being expressed either way. No sinking of any depth has been effected, – the greatest depth that we have heard of not exceeding six feet. The course of the creek has not been turned; and the means of freeing the holes from the water are so imperfect that half the day's labour is lost in baling. As at first, let whosoever will wash the surface soil, his labours are rewarded with more or less gold. We contend, therefore, that until much more is accomplished than any thing that has hitherto been done, it would be altogether premature to express any decided opinion as to the probable productiveness or non-productiveness of the Coromandel diggings. We must guard against being led astray by those whose interest or imagination may cause them to paint the auriferous regions couleur de rose; and we must take care not to be blinded by others who may quietly prosecute their mining operations, and say nothing of their success, lest a license fee should be exacted, and their gains be thereby diminished. We do know that there are parties sticking to the pursuit; and we have therefore a right to presume that that pursuit is not altogether a barren one.

According to a current and generally credited report, his excellency the Lieutenant-Governor is represented as having laid the foundation of a very excellent arrangement with the natives, for permission to dig on their auriferous lands. It has been proposed, it is said, to pay a sum of 3OOl. for every 500 licensed diggers, and at the rate of 6OOl. for 1,000 diggers that may be licensed, and so on in proportion. To this arrangement the natives are reported to be favourable. If so, we shall heartily congratulate the Lieutenant-Governor and the colonists on the successful accomplishment of his very judicious negotiation.

For the subjoined particulars respecting the auriferous specimen in question, together with the sundry other topics con-

RICH SPECIMEN OF GOLD.

nected with the gold fields, we are indebted to the pen of a recent intelligent visitor: –

"This specimen weighs 752 grains troy weight, or about an ounce and a half. Now as the specific gravity of quartz rock is 2.5, and the specific gravity of the specimen is 3.8, it follows that one-third of the mass, or about half an ounce of it, is gold. This is decidedly the best specimen I have yet seen, and I have therefore carefully endeavoured to ascertain that it is the actual produce of New Zealand. The finders of it were Owen and Williams, two sawyers who had been resident at Kikowhakarere for many years. They have recently at various times discovered small specimens of a similar character. They have their 'Long Tom' at the junction of a small tributary with the Kapenga, below all the other diggers. Neither of the men have ever been at any other diggings. The specimen is abrupt at its edges, as if it had not suffered much friction, and from its appearance I am inclined to infer that it is broken off from a rock having a similar structure. The Lieutenant-Governor has, I believe, completed all the arrangements with the natives, so that diggers may commence work at the several places, now numerous, where indications of gold, and gold itself, have been found. Hard work, industry, and a small capital laid out with judgment, are now the only things required to determine the momentous question whether the gold can be lucratively worked in New Zealand. I avoid speculating, however, on a subject which as yet defies all speculation; but if the hills around Coromandel will yield, as I am led to believe, to hard working men a moderate daily return by gold-digging, we will always have, now and then, men of enterprising spirit trying their fortune at this gambling and seductive occupation, in the hope of picking up a great nugget. For gold-digging is here robbed of many of its horrors. There is no difficulty of getting to the place, and the numerous large trees which grow on both sides of the rivulets give to the workers a protection from the burning rays of the sun, and the inclemency of the weather, which no other diggings afford.

GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS.

"Dr. Thomson, of the 58th Regiment, has acquired an interesting addition to the Fauna of New Zealand, which he obtained at the diggings. It is a frog, which was found alive on removing a large quartz boulder from its original bed. The animal was carefully examined by several intelligent natives at Coromandel, but only one man had ever seen a similar creature before, and this occurred several years ago, at the digging of a saw-pit; but I am told there have been others seen at Waiheki. They have no name for it in the Maori language, and they exhibited much astonishment on beholding the animal. They said it must be the Atua, the spirit or god of the gold, which had appeared upon the earth, and the 'croakers' among the assembled tribes were inclined to draw unfavourable omens from the discovery of this strange animal in New Zealand at such a peculiar time."

GOLD DIGGERS' PROVISIONAL REGULATIONS.

(From the Government Gazette.)

Whereas arrangements have been made by the colonial government with the native owners of certain portions of land in the neighbourhood of Coromandel, in the district of Auckland, with a view to the management of the gold field which has recently been discovered therein, his Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor has been pleased, with the advice of the Executive Council, to direct the publication of the following provisional regulations, under which licenses may be obtained to dig, search for, and remove alluvial gold, on and from the demesne land of the Crown in the said district: And whereas, with a view to render the remaining portions of the said gold field speedily available to the public generally, and on equal terms, it is expedient that no person shall, without due authority, dig, search for, or remove gold on or from such portions of the said gold field until they shall have been placed under the management of the colonial government, and the public are hereby warned that no such license as aforesaid will at any time hereafter be

GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS.

granted to any person who shall, without due authority, dig, search for, or remove gold from any portion of the said gold field which shall not have been made subject to the government regulations.

Regulations for the working of matrix gold combined with quartz or any other rock, remaining in its original place of deposit, will be published as soon as conveniently may be, and as occasion may require.

Regulations for the working of gold on land alienated by the Crown in fee simple, will shortly be made public.

All alluvial or matrix gold procured without due authority, within the district aforesaid, will be liable to be seized, in whose possession soever it may be found.

From and after the 1st day of December 1852, no person will be permitted to dig, search for, or remove gold on or from any land, public or private, within the said district, without taking out a license in the form hereunto annexed.

Every such license shall continue in force for one calendar month, and shall commence and take effect on the 1st day of the month in which it shall be dated.

For every such license there shall be paid, in advance, the sum of 1l. 10s. But if a license be taken out after the 15th of the month, one-half only of the said fee will be charged; provided that permits already issued shall remain in force till the 1st day of January 1853, without any charge.

The licenses will be issued from the office of the colonial secretary at Auckland, but they may be renewed on the gold field by a commissioner.

No person will be eligible to obtain a license, or the transfer or renewal of a license, unless he shall produce a certificate of discharge from his last service, or show, to the satisfaction of the officer by whom such license may be granted, transferred, or renewed, that he is not a person improperly absent from hired service.

Any such licenses as aforesaid may be cancelled, in case the holder thereof shall be convicted, by competent authority, of

GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS.

the illicit sale of spirituous liquors, wine, ale, or beer or of any disorderly or riotous conduct, endangering the public peace.

With the view to the security of person and property, and to promote peaceable and orderly conduct on the gold field, the name and description of every person who shall be convicted of the illicit sale of spirituous or other liquors, or of disorderly or riotous conduct on the field, will be forwarded to the officer by whom licenses may be issued, transferred, or renewed, and no license will be granted or transferred to, or renewed in favour of, any person so convicted as aforesaid.

Persons found working alluvial gold on any land within the district aforesaid, without having previously paid the license fee to the proper officer, shall pay 5l. instead of the usual fee for the first license he may take out, and, in default thereof, will be proceeded against according to law.

Every person desirous of establishing a claim to a particular portion of unoccupied ground, by working, in the ordinary method, for alluvial gold, may have his claim marked out, on the following scale, viz., not less than –

1. Fifteen feet frontage to either side of a river.

2. Twenty feet of the bed of a tributary to a river or main creek, extending across its whole breadth.

3. Sixty feet of the bed of a ravine or water-course.

4. Twenty feet square of table-land, or river flats.

Such claim will be secured to the party for such time only as he may continue to hold a license for and work the same.

If any dispute shall arise in respect of any such claim, reference should be forthwith made by the claimant to the commissioner, who is hereby authorized to hear and summarily determine the case upon the spot.

The owners of all claims who may employ men on hire to assist them in working alluvial gold, and who may take out licenses for them, will be entitled, on application to the commissioner, to have the licenses of such men transferred to other labourers. In every such case the license must be produced to

VISIT OF THE LIEUT.-GOVERNOR.

the commissioner, who will endorse thereon, without any additional fee, the name and transferee.

Persons desirous of constructing tram-roads, or forming reservoirs or dams on the gold field, for the purpose of washing gold, must make application to the commissioner for permission so to do: and any tram-road, reservoir, or dam which may have been constructed with the requisite permission, will be reserved for the exclusive use of the applicant in case such tram-road, reservoir, or dam shall not, in the opinion of the commissioner, be detrimental to the public interest.

His Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor having returned from Coromandel late on Wednesday evening, has lost no time in placing the result of his negotiations with the native owners of the gold fields, before the public. A meeting of the gentlemen elected to serve as members of the Provincial Council for New Ulster was yesterday invited; and to these, as the only representatives of the people, his Excellency submitted a precis of the very successful and judicious arrangement into which he has so far been enabled to enter. Of those arrangements we imagine every right-thinking person must approve; and as their scope is likely to be speedily and largely extended by the assent of other tribes as yet in a state of dubiety, we trust every person will perceive the importance of a faithful adherence to the government regulations.

The arrangements entered into are to continue for the space of three years, commencing on the 1st December next.

The government contracts to pay the native proprietors as follows: – For every 500 diggers at the rate of 600l. per square mile per annum. For 500 to 1,000 diggers, 900l. For 1,000 to 1,500 diggers, l,200l. For 1,500 to 2,000 diggers, l,500l. per square mile per annum.

The native owners are to register themselves, and are to be paid in proportion to the interest they hold in the block of land authorized to be mined.

Native owners are to be permitted to dig free of charge.

PAYMENTS TO NATIVES.

The Government guarantee protection. All persons must therefore take out a license.

The native owners undertake to assist the Government in the protection of the diggers.

The property in the soil to remain with the natives. Villages and cultivated lands to be protected as much as possible.

Any natives who withhold their assent to these arrangements, are on no account to be intruded on.

A charge of two shillings on each license is to be paid to the native owners in consideration of the confidence reposed by them in the exertions of the Government in their behalf.

Three tribes have assented to these arrangements; and, in consequence, about 10,000 acres, or sixteen square miles, have already been made available for the purpose of gold digging. This block is situated at Coromandel. A much larger adhesion to the Government plan is almost immediately expected; and it is believed that the non-assenting natives will, with their usual acuteness, become so thoroughly aware of the vast importance it will be to their present and future prosperity to render every facility to the gold miners, that they will speedily place the entire peninsula from Cape Colville to Kawaranga, a distance of from forty to fifty miles, at the disposal of the Government.

These, then, are the arrangements that have been proposed. In our opinion nothing can be more fair or judicious to both races; and we sincerely trust that both will maintain the utmost good faith in their observance.

A definite block having thus been ceded to the Government to commence with, it cannot be too strongly impressed upon our fellow-colonists how important it must be not to intrude upon the lands of natives not yet parties to these arrangements. Should they do so, whether for the purpose of prospecting or anything else, they may incur peril to themselves, and plunge the colony and the Government into wanton and unnecessary danger. Prudence and patience! – and the natives who now hold aloof will quickly find it to be their interest to subscribe

PROGRESS OF THE DIGGINGS.

to the opinions of their more confiding fellow-countrymen. Let not the golden prospects now dawning on New Zealand be ruined by any childish impatience. We say, advisedly, that the Government which has shown such a thoughtful care for the interests of the natives will not overlook those of the Europeans; but it is only by the cordial co-operation of all parties that these measures can be effectually carried out, and the golden hopes of the colonists assured.

With respect to the latest news from the diggings, the best tidings we can supply may he inferred from the fact that the government are so fully persuaded that an available gold field does exist, that they have framed a code of regulations for its governance, which will almost immediately be issued. The character of the auriferous region is affirmed to correspond with that of the Ural. The geological indications are the same, and the same the meridian trend of the mountains.

Hitherto the diggers have been but a mere handful; and not a tithe of these provided with the requisite gear. The field of their labour has also, until Tuesday last, being confined to the beds of the creeks and water-courses. On Tuesday, however, the scene of operation was changed to dry diggings on the hill sides. It is, of course, too early to speculate on the success likely to attend that change. Each succeeding arrival, however, appears to report favourable progress; and the rumour daily becomes stronger that a rich gold field is likely to be speedily made manifest. – Southern Cross, Nov. 26.

Auckland, Nov. 10.
The course of the river must be turned by the clubbing together of the diggers, before an ounce a day, to a party of three, is likely to be obtained. Such a proceeding will be remunerative, because, from the weight of the gold, it will always find its way to the lowest part of the bed during the agitation of water in floods; and experience proves that the lower the diggings the richer and heavier are the grains. The river has also evidently traversed the whole breadth of the

GOLD AT ARATAONGA.

various flats in the valley; and therefore, the channel so dug to divert the water may be. expected to yield good earth for washing. California and Port Phillip diggers here say that the surface washings at those places are often not more rich than these; even on very good diggings. They say that when the water is low in the summer "there will be plenty of gold found." This is said by persons who have no interest in the reward. The most interesting circumstance, however, is the discovery of gold at Arataonga, on the eastern coast. I went there yesterday "prospecting," and found gold in the first pan washed; no one had previously crossed the dividing Range on the search. The Range is about 2,900 feet in height, and is crowned by a sharp ridge of white quartz. Arataonga is a small harbour, facing the great Mercury Island, and is the next bay but one south of Port Charles (on the map). Out of about six pans washed, four gave gold specks and grains. I have since found it in some quartz from the Range. I had not the means to dig down, nor of remaining above an hour in the valley. The discovery is interesting, as an opinion, derived from Australian experience, I believe, existed to the effect that gold was never found on the eastern slope of a range.

Civil Secretary's Office, Wellington, Nov. 8, 1852.

His Excellency the Governor-in-Chief has been pleased to direct the publication, for general information, of the following extracts from a report by Major Nugent, native secretary at Auckland, relative to a recent discovery of gold in the neighbourhood of Coromandel Harbour, together with the report from the secretary of the "Gold Reward Committee" in that settlement on the subject. – By his Excellency's command,

ALFRED DOMETT, Civil Secretary.

COMMITTEE'S REPORT.

(EXTRACTS.)

Auckland, Oct. 23 1852.

I arrived at Coromandel Harbour on the evening of the 19th, and having ascertained beyond doubt that gold had been discovered in a stream running down in a southerly direction from the high range of hills, into Coromandel Harbour, I proceeded next morning to the settlement of the chief "Paora," who was stated to have the principal claim to the land in which the gold was found. * * * *

Prom the nature of the country it would appear that gold must be diffused along the whole range of hills extending from Cape Colville into the interior. – I have, &c.

(Signed) C. L. Nugent, Native Secretary.

REPORT OF THE GENERAL GOLD REWARD COMMITTEE, TO HIS EXCELLENCY THE LIEUT.-GOVERNOR OF NEW ULSTER.

Auckland, Oct. 23, 1852. Sir, – I have the honour, by order of the Gold Reward Committee, and pursuant to a resolution unanimously adopted, a copy of which is subjoined, to enclose for the information of his Excellency the Lieut.-Governor, a copy of the report furnished to the committee by the deputation who visited the locality where it is alleged gold has been discovered. – I have the honour, &c.

(Signed) Thomas S. Forsaith, Secretary to Committee. Moved by Mr. Gilfillan, seconded by Mr. Hughes, "That the secretary be instructed to forward a copy of the report of the deputation to his Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor."

REPORT OF THE SUB-COMMITTEE ON RECENT GOLD DISCOVERT IN THE COROMANDEL DISTRICT.

The sub-committee appointed by the General Gold Reward Committee to proceed to Kikawhakareti, for the purpose of

COMMITTEE'S REPORT.

making further inquiry relative to certain gold deposits reported by Messrs. C. and F. Ring to have been discovered by them in the Coromandel district, have the honour to report, –

That they sailed from Auckland, accompanied by Major Nugent, native secretary, and Mr. Johnston of that department, in the Undine schooner, at ten o'clock on the night of Monday, the 18th instant, and anchored in Coromandel Harbour at nine o'clock on Tuesday evening.

They landed at six o'clock on the following morning, and proceeded to M'Gregor's Bay, where they learned that the Messrs. Ring had left but a short time before for the creek where the gold had been discovered.

Your committee started at half-past eleven for the creek, and after travelling about three miles over ranges of fern hills, they came to the bed of a large creek which empties itself into Coromandel Harbour.

On proceeding up this creek they found immense blocks of quartz, thickly strewed along its bed, and cropping out of its sides, and having ascended about a mile and a half they reached a bend of the creek, where they found Ring's party at work, sinking into the bed of it, the water having been turned off a short distance above.

Your committee had a quantity of the stuff taken out of this hole, and washed under their inspection, and every panful of it produced a few specks of gold.

The creek was examined in several other places in this locality, and portions of the soil dug up from its sides and washed, in all of which gold, in more or less minute particles, was observed, convincing your committee that the soil all along this part of the creek is impregnated with the precious ore.

On returning in the evening, a hole was dug at a place about half a mile further down and a quantity of the soil washed, but without any visible satisfactory result.

The vessel having been brought round during the day to M'Gregor's Bay, your committee returned on board for the

COMMITTEE'S REPORT.

night, having first made arrangements to start with Ring's party early the next morning; and accordingly they landed at six o'clock on Thursday morning, and proceeded to the creek, accompanied by Major Nugent.

About half-way between the place of entering it, and the spot where the investigations were made the day before, a favourable indication was noticed at a bar in the creek, and a quantity of the gravel and earth removed, a panful was taken from about two feet below the surface, and washed, it produced a number of scales of gold – several further portions of the soil in this neighbourhood were washed, and produced gold; at a short distance still lower down the creek, another party, which had arrived that morning from Auckland, took out, we believe, several larger grains of gold.

In the mean time Mr. C. Ring found it necessary to abandon the first digging, owing to the obstruction offered to his reaching the bed rock by the presence of large quartz boulders, and he commenced a new opening at some distance from the first. This attempt also he was forced to give up for the same reason; but a quantity of the stuff was washed by him in the presence of Major Nugent, and a number of fine specks of gold produced. After dinner an opening was made by Mr. Frederick Ring, assisted by some of your committee, who succeeded, after much hard labour, in sinking down to a depth of about four feet and a half. One or two pans of the stuff was taken out of this hole, as the work progressed, and washed, but did not produce anything. Another panful was washed just before leaving for the night, and the largest and best-looking specimen yet discovered in the creek was found in the bottom of the pan with several other smaller particles.

Your committee had previously determined to leave for Auckland on Thursday evening, but as it was hoped that by sinking deeper into this last hole, coarser deposits of gold might be discovered, it was resolved to give another day's trial, especially as the result of their investigations, although to a certain extent very satisfactory, would not enable them

COMMITTEE'S REPORT.

to report so decidedly on the value of the discovery as they wished to be able to do on their return to Auckland,

The weather on Friday morning, however, was unfavourable for work, and Mr. Ring's party did not proceed to the creek.

Your committee landed at the bay in the morning, and had the satisfaction to see a number of good specimens of gold brought in during the day by several other persons, who, notwithstanding the state of the weather, had been at work in the creek. One man brought in a small piece, which might be termed a nugget, as it was the first assuming that form which had been taken out.

The weather continued bad all day on Friday, and all that night, and on Saturday morning the vessel was got under weigh at six o'clock, and your committee left for Auckland.

Mr. Ring had a machine for working made at M'Gregor's settlement while your committee were there, which he intended to bring into operation as soon as he returns to work, and from all that your committee have observed they have no doubt but that he will in a very short time produce gold in such quantities as will prove so satisfactory to the general committee as will induce a fuller inspection by themselves on the ground.
(Signed)

W. C. DALBY. JOHN MACFARLANE.
JAMES MACKY. PATRICK DIGNAN.
JOHN WILLIAMSON.
Schooner Undine, Saturday, Oct. 23, 1852.

Civil Secretary's Office, Wellington, Nov. 15, 1852.
His Excellency the Governor-in-Chief has been pleased to direct the publication, for general information, of the following extracts from a despatch of his Excellency the Lieutenant-Governor of New Ulster respecting the discovery of Gold in the neighbourhood of Coromandel Harbour. – By his Excellency's command,

ALFRED DOMETT, Civil Secretary.

LIEUT.-GOVERNOR'S REPORT.

Auckland, Oct. 30, 1862.

SIR, – Having visited Coromandel harbour, agreeably to the arrangements communicated in the concluding part of my despatch of the 25th instant, respecting the discovery of gold in that neighbourhood, I have now the honour to acquaint your Excellency that I sailed from hence in the Border Maid, on the 27th, accompanied by the following gentlemen – Major Nugent, native secretary; Mr. Johnston, interpreter; Mr. Wood, deputy-surveyor-general; Mr. Heaphy, draftsman and assistant; Lieut. Wynyard, A. D. C.; Mr. Forsaith, on the part of the provincial council – in order to meet any emergency that might possibly arise, should the discovery prove an available field, or the natives in any way excited.

Having anchored the same evening at my destination, I proceeded the following morning to the creek where the gold exists, and having remained for some hours on the spot, I can report from personal observation, that, as yet, the ore can only be obtained in very small particles, although in every place some was assuredly found – quite sufficient indication, however, to warrant the conclusion that ere long (as in New South Wales) larger quantities may reward the digger, and hasten to advance the prosperity of the province.

Before leaving Coromandel I visited the native settlement, and ascertained that no opposition whatever would be offered to the Europeans while searching about the ravines; but as soon as gold is found in any quantity, they would then appeal to the government; which I conceive is an agreeable assurance that nothing at present arising from the discovery is likely to disturb the good understanding that exists between the races.

From all I have seen and heard, I have reason to feel perfectly satisfied with the result of my inquiries. – I have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient servant,

(Signed) R. H. WYNYARD, Lieut.-Governor.

London: Printed by STEWART and MURRAY, Old Bailey.

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