New Zealand: its Present Condition, Prospects and Resources

Edward Brown Fitton

First published by Edward Stanford in 1856

Digitised and made available online by the University of Auckland Libraries and Learning Services.

Epub © 2013 Early New Zealand Books Collection

ISBN 978-1-927288-06-1

[FRONTISPIECE]

[Inserted unpaginated illustration]

COLONIAL NEWSPAPERS
[Advertisement for: Melbourne Argus, Lyttelton Times, Graham's Town Journal and Cape of Good Hope Register]

[MAP]

MAP OF NEW ZEALAND

[TITLE PAGE]

NEW ZEALAND:
ITS
PRESENT CONDITION, PROSPECTS AND RESOURCES;

BEING A
DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY
AND GENERAL MODE OF LIFE AMONG NEW ZEALAND COLONISTS,
FOR THE
INFORMATION OF INTENDING EMIGRANTS.

BY
EDWARD BROWN FITTON,
A LANDOWNER AND LATE RESIDENT IN THE COLONY.

LONDON:
EDWARD STANFORD, 6, CHARING CROSS.
1856.

[Page ii is blank]

[ADVERTISEMENT]

ADVERTISEMENT.

THE groundwork of the following pages was a lecture on New Zealand, occupying about an hour in the reading.

For the many delays which have prevented its publication, the author cannot consider himself as entirely responsible. However, the length of time which has elapsed has, perhaps, increased the utility of the work as a guide book, by adding to the sources of information at his disposal; for which the writer offers his sincere thanks to many kind contributors. In a book professing to give the latest information upon all topics which it discusses, there can, of course, be little that is entirely original; and, where much of the information given consists of almost verbatim extracts from colonial newspapers, the style must necessarily be occasionally formal.

It is hoped that the numerous alterations and additions which the work has undergone from the time when the first fines were written

until the present day, may not have resulted in making it at last unreadable, or uninstructive to those persons for whom it is more especially intended.

St. Ewe, St. Austell, Cornwall,
October 4th, 1855.

[CONTENTS]

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

EARLY HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND – GRADUAL ARRIVAL OF AN EUROPEAN POPULATION – ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT.......1

CHAPTER II.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND – FEATURES OF THE COUNTRY – THE CLIMATE AND SCENERY OF NEW ZEALAND – THE SlX PRINCIPAL SETTLEMENTS .... 25

CHAPTER III.

FULLER DESCRIPTION OF THE SIX CHIEF SETTLEMENTS OF NEW ZEALAND – AUCKLAND . 48

CHAPTER IV.

WELLINGTON..... 88

CHAPTER V.

NELSON........118

CHAPTER VI. NEW PLYMOUTH......145

CHAPTER VII. OTAGO .... ... 174

CHAPTER VIII. CANTERBURY.......192

CHAPTER IX.

THE PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS OF NEW ZEALAND – SHEEP FARMING – CATTLE FARMING – DAIRY FARMING – HORSE BREEDING – PRICES OF STOCK.....216

CHAPTER X.

OF OCCUPATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE POSSESSION OF LAND, AND OF AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS GENERALLY IN NEW ZEALAND – DOMESTIC LIVE STOCK . . . . . 244

CHAPTER XI.

DOMESTIC LIFE IN THE COLONIES – INFLUENCE AND OCCUPATIONS OF FEMALES – LADIES' PURSUITS – MEANS OF EDUCATION . . 269

CHAPTER XII.

OF THE VOYAGE TO NEW ZEALAND – OUTFIT AND PREPARATION FOR COLONIAL LIFE – CONSIDERATIONS PREVIOUS TO EMIGRATING – THE PROFESSIONS IN COLONIES – WHERE TO APPLY ON ARRIVAL – TRANSMISSION OF MONEY........275

CHAPTER XIII.

LABOURING CLASSES – ASSISTED EMIGRATION . 290

CHAPTER XIV.

PRICE OF WASTE LANDS IN NEW ZEALAND .. 322

CHAPTER XV.

CONCLUSION . . .... 350

CHAPTER I. EARLY HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND...

NEW ZEALAND.

CHAPTER I.

EARLY HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND – GRADUAL ARRIVAL OF AN EUROPEAN POPULATION – ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT.

THE following pages are not intended to contain a detailed history of New Zealand; or to describe minutely every particular locality and branch of occupation among the present inhabitants of those Islands.

Such descriptions may be found in numerous publications bearing upon the history of New Zealand, and the early days of its colonization; but are, I believe, of less interest to most persons intending to emigrate, than books of more modest pretensions and less minuteness of detail, which treat more exclusively of the matters of immediate interest to the Colonists established in the country.

The chief object aimed at in this book is, to endeavour to give, in a small compass, such information as I have thought most valuable

OBJECTS AIMED AT IN THIS ROOK.

for persons who may have looked toward New Zealand as a future home for themselves, or some member of their families; and who are desirous of knowing what the prospects are of people now reaching New Zealand, as emigrants from England, without any previous colonial experience; as well as the present state of the country, and the condition and occupations of the inhabitants of the various settlements. With these objects in view, I have not hesitated to transcribe into these pages, observations and descriptions already published by persons who have written on the subjects to which I have to refer, where I believe such remarks to be of advantage to the reader. In such cases, I have generally preferred using the actual words of the person whose authority I quote, rather than transpose into my own language, ideas for the suggestion of which I have been indebted to others. In several parts of this book, allusion is made to publications treating of various topics of interest in New Zealand, which persons desirous of minute information may do well to consult; but, it is hoped, that this little volume will be found to contain all the information required by any one desirous of ascertaining, generally, the mode of

OBJECTS AIMED AT IN THIS ROOK.

life, and daily pursuits of New Zealand Colonists of the present day.

It must be borne in mind, by persons in England, and by those who have hitherto formed their ideas of a colonial life from accounts they have read of settlements in the vast districts of North America, or of the still unoccupied territories of Australia; that New Zealand, although but very recently much noticed as a field of emigration, is of small comparative extent, and is already so fully explored, that, but a small proportion of the whole amount of its soil which is available for European colonists is, at the present time, altogether unoccupied, either as grazing land, or for the purpose of cultivation. I mention this thus early in the book, because apparently a rather general impression prevails at home, that extensive tracts of land in New Zealand, which might be advantageously occupied by English agriculturists, have never yet been explored or entered upon; and I hope in the following pages to give such an account of the general mode of life, and pursuits of the various classes of Colonists, now established in New Zealand, as may serve to assist persons in Eng-and in forming their opinion (if still undecided

PAST HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

in the choice of a colony) respecting the advantages offered by New Zealand as their future home, as compared with other more easily accessible countries.

Before entering upon a description of the mode of life and occupations which will probably fall to the lot of persons now emigrating to New Zealand, it will be well to inquire a little into the earlier history of these islands. I do not however think it advisable to enter very deeply into such matters, or to discuss the political history of the country, about which much has been published both in England and in the colony itself during the last few years. The reader will, I think, have little reason to regret a scanty outline of the past history of New Zealand until a very recent period; for the fragments of truth collected from the various traditions of the natives respecting their earlier annals, are so mixed up with falsehood and absurdity, that all that can be relied upon with certainty is nearly as follows: –

FIRST ARRIVAL OF INHABITANTS. – It is probably at least two hundred years, since a party of islanders from some of the numerous group near Torres' Strait, on the east of Australia, or perhaps even more northerly islands near the

NATIVE DOGS.

Chinese main land, arrived on the northernmost of the three islands, forming the group now called New Zealand. They appear to have brought with them nothing but the roots of a sort of potato called the "Kumera" or sweet potato, to the cultivation of which, even at the present day, when they are well skilled in the planting and harvesting of wheat, maize, and all the European fruits and vegetables, they still devote a considerable portion of their time and labour. In addition to these roots, which were perhaps a store of food accidentally remaining in their canoes on their debarkation, they brought with them neither animals, nor apparently any knowledge or art, beyond that of weaving rushes into mats for clothing, in which all the islanders of those seas are very expert, and also a knack of rude carving in wood for the adornment of their clubs and canoes.

The natives declare they have always possessed a few dogs; but this is very doubtful, at all events the renegade curs, which now haunt the unfrequented parts of the mountains and the stony river beds, and are dignified by the name of "Wild Dogs" by the English settlers, are evidently the neglected produce of some European mongrels, and are perfectly distinct,

EARLY HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

not only from the Dingo or native dog of Australia, but also from any of the indigenous dogs of the Polynesian group of islands.

The basis of the language of almost the whole group of islands between China and New Zealand is the Malay dialect, to which the Maori or native New Zealand tongue bears a strong resemblance; and this affinity of language, in addition to their bronze colour, and general personal appearance, has been considered a distant connecting link between the inhabitants of the main land of Malacca and the New Zealand natives.

It is at least tolerably certain respecting the original people of these islands, that they did not come from Australia, which is the nearest main land to New Zealand. They differ from the native Australians in stature, complexion, and the texture of their hair; being tall, active and intelligent, with fine straight hair, regular features and mahogany or bronze complexions; and have always been skilled in, and fond of, the management of boats on the open sea; while the Australian aboriginal is swarthy, and stunted in his growth, and scarcely ever uses any kind of canoe except for the temporary purpose of crossing a river.

The cause of their arrival in the islands was

NEW ZEALAND ABORIGINES.

perhaps the desire of escape from slaughter or slavery to hostile tribes, or possibly an unexpected storm at sea may have driven the first canoes with their occupants to their landing-place upon some portion of the northern island. But, whatever may have brought them to the islands, the earlier inhabitants appear, at any rate, not to have left all feuds behind them; and, if they brought little else with them, they imported to their new habitations a mutual animosity, and eagerness for the extermination, and flesh for convivial purposes, not only of such neighbours as happened to be located near them, but even of more remote ones, who were of sufficient importance to be worth plundering or extirpating. And their history, if it could be clearly unravelled, would probably be little more than a series of alternate warfares and banquetings, and the retiring of the weaker or vanquished tribes or families to other more remote districts. This turbulent existence eventually scattered the population, not only over the whole of the north island, but also drove some of them to seek shelter in the large plains and wooded districts in the less genial climate of the southern portion of the islands. 1

CAPTAIN COOK'S VISITS

The first Europeans who visited them were probably the Dutch; we know, at any rate, that the Dutch navigator Tasman touched at the northernmost point in 1643, and the name of New Zealand has been given to the group, in honour of the country to which it owes its discovery. The visits of Captain Cook, which first attracted the attention of Englishmen to New Zealand, threw but little light upon the past history of the then Cannibal Islands. The earliest visit of Cook took place in 1769, during his first voyage of discovery. He made the land at Poverty Bay, to which he gave that name from the apparent sterility of the country; and afterwards, proceeding on a southern and western course, he passed through Cook's Straits, thus ascertaining the fact of there being more than one island in the group. On a second visit, in the year 1773, he approached the islands from the south, after a cruise in the Southern Ocean, and, after passing up the whole west coast of the middle island without finding any harbour, he sailed on a northerly course again through

TO NEW ZEALAND.

Cook's Straits from the western side; and later in the same year, after visiting the Society Islands, the Friendly Islands, and the Marquesas, he came down from Otaheite, lying north-east of New Zealand, and touched at the Bay of Plenty, so named by him from the appearances of fertility being greater there than in his former landing-place. And thence steering south and to the eastward of the middle island, he saw in the distance, the lofty and well wooded promontory, which he named Banks' Island (after Sir Joseph Banks). This supposed island was afterwards found to be a peninsula, connected with the extensive level territory, now so well known as the Canterbury Plains, and containing, besides other shelter for ships, the harbours of Akaroa once a French settlement in New Zealand, and Lyttleton the port town of the Canterbury settlement.

The favourable reports of Cook respecting the harbours to be found in many parts of the New Zealand coast, induced many whaling vessels, who frequented those seas, to visit the till then almost unknown country; and it was not long before adventurers established melting houses and boat stations in many of the small inlets, for the purpose of capturing and trying

EARLY HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

out the oil of the whales, which were in those days very often, and are even now occasionally seen within a very short distance from the shore. And it is to these pioneers of the multitudes who have since made their homes in New Zealand, rather than to any regularly organized expeditions of discovery, that we are chiefly indebted for the first knowledge of the most available harbours and inlets of the coast.

The example of these rough sailors, who were themselves not much less uncivilised than the savages among whom they were located, can have effected little towards introducing Christianity, or abating cannibalism.

But, if the natives received little moral improvement from these hardy seamen, they, at least, learnt from them the cultivation of the potato, and the use of iron for their implements, as well as the advantages attending the rearing of pigs, as a stock of food available at all times, in preference to the precarious banquet afforded by the victims in an occasional hostile foray. And it was not many years before the keeping of pigs became very general among them; and also the cultivation of the potato and American maize, were added to that of their own much esteemed Kumera. The pro-

NO INDIGENOUS QUADRUPEDS.

geny of some of these pigs, and also of others more recently imported by the settlers, escaping into the unfrequented districts in many parts of the country, have increased amazingly, and become perfectly wild, and in some places very mischievous, by uprooting and devastating unfenced cultivated portions of land.

There had been, previous to the arrival of the English, no quadrupeds whatever in New Zealand, either in a wild or domesticated state, excepting perhaps the dog; but very soon afterwards, not only dogs became numerous, but also the common ship-rat, which has now penetrated into every part of the country, and is very prolific and troublesome in all buildings, especially near the river-beds.

A few goats have also, like the pigs, escaped from their owners, and bred in the mountainous districts; but excepting these fugitives, there are in New Zealand, even now no wild animals of any sort – no reptiles, but a small sort of lizard, and, excepting on the sea-coast, no fish, but eels, which are plentiful in all fresh-water-pools, and which the natives are very skilful in capturing.

There is on all parts of the sea-coast a great abundance and variety of excellent fish, which

EARLY HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

are easily captured, either with nets or hooks, but none of them penetrate more than two or three miles up the estuaries of the rivers.

The birds, especially the water-fowl and marsh-birds, are in some places both numerous and tame. The singing birds, of which a few have very musical notes, are only found on the outskirts of woods and small patches of bush.

Notwithstanding the cannibal propensities of the natives in their relations with each other, the Englishmen from Sydney and elsewhere, engaged in the whaling-trade, kept up a tolerably frequent intercourse with the tribes on the coast; exchanging iron and trinkets, and latterly guns and ammunition for supplies of whalebone, obtained by the natives from carcases thrown upon the shore. And when the possession of pigs and potatoes became general among them, many of the bays on the coast, both of the north and of the middle island, became the permanently appointed rendezvous for the refitting and provisioning of the large sea-going whale-ships, who purchased such supplies as the inhabitants could furnish. By these means, not only did the natives become acquainted with a system of barter, but the language of both parties began to be mutually understood, and a few of these

WHALERS AND NATIVES.

intelligent savages even joined the whaling crews, and became skilful, not merely in the use of the oars, but also as "headsmen" in managing the boats, and harpooning and killing the whale.

This increased intercourse with the natives gradually led to a more extended system of trade between Sydney and the mixed population, – consisting partly of sea-faring adventurers, partly of missionaries, who presently made their appearance, and also of some natives, who had made their head-quarters in that part of the north island, now called Auckland. And the attention of the British Government, at first in Australia, and afterwards of the Home Authorities, was drawn to the growing community, as well as to the lawlessness and frequent turbulent outbreaks among the natives and the Europeans, who had taken up their abode in the country.

Occasionally, in later times, before the arrival of a British Governor, large tracts of the country were purchased from the natives, at almost nominal valuations, by such visitors among them as anticipated, that a day might arrive, when land in New Zealand would be valuable. This practice of land barter, at last,

EARLY HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

became very general; and, while all parties tried to overreach one another, the same portion of land was often sold several times over by different chiefs, each of whom pretended to be the real owner of the territory bargained for, to as many different purchasers. Such a mode of dealing soon gave rise to many violent disputes, until, on the establishment of the British Government in the islands, some sixty years after Cook's first visit, it was proclaimed, that, in future, the Crown alone of Great Britain should have the right of purchasing land from a native of New Zealand; and, while certain previous purchases by Englishmen from natives were acknowledged as valid, many others were disallowed, or much curtailed in extent; and subsequently, by regularly conducted agreement and purchase from the natives, a very large portion of the land, both in the north and in the middle island, became the property of the British Government.

The native population at the present day are very unwilling to alienate any portion of the territories which have been reserved to them; however, within the last two years, a very fine district, the Ahuriri, in the north island, bordering upon Wellington, has been made over to

NEW ZEALAND COMPANY.

the British Government; and there are, it is said, still some hopes, that a portion of the beautiful territory around New Plymouth may, ere long, be formally purchased by the Government from the native possessors of the soil.

In this very brief narrative of the earlier events attending the colonizing of New Zealand, I have intentionally omitted all notice of the proceedings of the New Zealand Company; as their past transactions can but little affect persons emigrating to New Zealand in the present day, excepting that a portion of the annual revenue of the colony is appropriated for the liquidation of the liabilities of the Company, which are not yet entirely paid off.

The New Zealand Company was originated in England about the year 1837, in consequence of the general attention directed to the evils arising from the frequently fraudulent and ill defined transfer of their territories by the native chiefs to adventurers, who attempted, by these means, to obtain possession of the islands. The original intention of the Company was, solely to act as mediators between the natives and intending purchasers of their territories; so that a distinct understanding might be entered into by the parties on either side, which would

EARLY HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

prevent a recurrence of the hostilities to which the land barters had given rise.

Much opposition in Parliament having, however, been experienced by the projectors of this intention, it was found necessary to organize a Company, in order to carry on the project, and, under their auspices, a large extent of territory was purchased from the natives, and many ships full of emigrants left England for the colonies, which were projected by the Company.

Owing, however, to various impediments experienced by the Company in endeavouring to carry out their operations, not only from want of the support of the Home Government, but also from the strenuous opposition of interested persons in New Zealand itself, great delays occurred in the adjustment of the various claims to, and subsequent instalment of the right owners in the occupation of, portions of land sold by the Company, to purchasers who had emigrated under their auspices from England.

Very great hardships and disappointments, arising from these causes, were incurred by the earlier emigrants, and eventually the New Zealand Company found it necessary to abandon their project altogether, and to resign all future management and disposal of lands exclusively to

MISSIONARY LABOURS.

the representatives of the British Government in New Zealand.

The Company was finally broken up in 1851, having, however, previously established the colonies of Wellington, Nelson, New Plymouth, and Otago. A large portion of their debts still remains unliquidated, the payment of which has been charged upon the annual revenues of the colony, until cleared off.

Meanwhile, in the early days of the whale-fisher's visits, the Christian Missionary had not been idle. In the year 1807, it was first proposed to send Missionaries to New Zealand, but a terrible catastrophe prevented their departure at this time for the intended field of their labours. Owing to some misunderstanding, very probably caused by misconduct of the white people, in their intercourse with the natives, the entire crew of a British vessel, called the Boyd, who had touched at a place, named from this circumstance Massacre Bay, were lured ashore in ignorance of hostilities, and murdered and eaten by the savages. This for a time put a stop to all hopes of missionaries taking up their abode among them. Nevertheless, in 1812, two missionaries ventured to go to these cannibals. They settled at the Bay of Islands.

EARLY HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

The missionaries found the inhabitants as fierce as they expected, nor were they rewarded by any change in their behaviour during many years that they continued their labours among them. If there was any change in the ferocity of the natives towards each other, it was for the worse; for a chief called Hongi, who had obtained a passage to Europe, in one of the vessels that visited his shores, got guns and ammunition from England on his return, and leading his army through the land, destroyed many thousands of his countrymen, who, with their spears and clubs alone, could of course make but feeble stand against the bullets of their assailants. Yet, notwithstanding these discouragements, more missionaries came. The New Zealanders were pleased at the arrival of their teachers, but would not attend to their warnings; and a space of twenty years had made but little improvement in the religious condition of the islands. A few years more however had effected a vast alteration, and at the time of his death, which occurred nearly thirty years after the commencement of his labours, one of the same missionaries, who had first preached the Gospel among them, the venerable Mr. Marsden, had lived to know, that there were at

MISSIONARY PROGRESS.

least 6000 Christian Maories – to see the once barbarous district of Auckland, the seat of the British Government, and the centre of a flourishing trading community, – and to learn that a Bishop of New Zealand, the present well-known Selwyn, had been appointed, to superintend the religious affairs of the islands of New Zealand and the surrounding seas.

It is not necessary here to describe the progress of the missionaries in New Zealand. A detailed account of their efforts, and eventual, though gradual success, may be found in the annals of missionary labour, and in more recent times (among the publications of the Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts) in the journals of Bishop Selwyn. Nor is there any occasion, for a minute history of the establishment of the British Government in the islands. It is sufficient on this point to observe, that at the present time, each of the six chief settlements has a Local Government, or Provincial Council, of its own, for the arrangement of matters, relating to subjects of exclusive interest, within that particular province: while a General Council for the whole islands, legislates for the entire colony of New Zealand, under the superintendence of a Governor, who receives his ap-

GOVERNMENT OF NEW ZEALAND.

pointment, and occasional instructions, from the Colonial Office at home. There has as yet been only one full session 2 of the General Assembly of New Zealand, held at Auckland, since the passing of the late Bill for the Constitution of New Zealand; there has also been one full session in each province of the several Provincial Councils, and a second session is now holding their sittings.

The following remarks, made in anticipation of the intelligence of the first session of the General Assembly of New Zealand for 1854, are transcribed from No. 157 of the Australian and New Zealand Gazette.

"The constitution of New Zealand has conferred upon the Colony a system of government, without precedent in the southern hemisphere, or indeed in any other British Colony. It consists of a Representative of Her Majesty, deprived of the former despotic power of Colonial Governors, which exceeded by far the power, practically accorded to Her Majesty by the British Constitution, and endowed with the prerogatives, usually exercised by the Sovereign, whom he is deputed to represent. Next in

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

order to the Governor, is an Upper Chamber, composed of his own nominees, who are supposed to represent, at a respectful distance, the British House of Peers. Nominally below these, but really above them, is a Lower House, analogous to the British House of Commons, which, though nominally of less moment than the House of Peers, has contrived to possess itself of a power, far beyond that of the Upper House; a feat, which its colonial imitation has yet to accomplish, though it possesses all the materials for the establishment of the same degree of power. The machinery of Government, as at home, is set in motion by a Ministry, composed of Members of either House, and subject to the like influences in holding and surrendering office. In short, we have in New Zealand, almost an exact counterpart of the British constitution.

"The novelty of the New Zealand constitution consists in a number of gubernatorial departments, for the most part independent of all the acts of the general government, save only those of the Governor himself, not as a member of the general government, but as the delegate of the authority of the Crown. For this purpose, the Colony is divided into six Provinces,

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

each of which elects its own Governor and Council, to whose hands the entire management of the affairs of the Province is committed, their acts being altogether irrespective of those of the general legislature; and uncontrollable by that body as such. The result is the same, as though Great Britain were divided into six provinces, each having its own provincial government, and framing its own ordinances, irrespective of Parliament, acknowledging in fact no head but Her Majesty.

"These provincial governments are not, as they were called, during the discussions on the bill conceding them, 'municipalities,' in any sense of the term; but are as full and complete as the general government itself; they are in fact, the exact counterparts in principle of the states forming the American Union. The constitution of New Zealand is, therefore, a mixture of the constitution of Great Britain with that of the United States. The Provinces form the States, and the General Assembly the Congress, but in a monarchical form.

"This form of constitution is a novel one, as blending intimately monarchical and republican principles, the latter being in all the ordinary affairs of the Colony rendered predominant;

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

whilst the monarchical principle, to use an ordinary phrase, seems better adapted for show than use. Taken altogether, it is a most singular form of government, to have emanated from a monarchical legislature; but it appears to work extremely well."

Unfortunately, however, these bright anticipations were frustrated. The session was frittered away in a series of altercations, which have rendered a great part of the debates, and the members concerned in them, and in the transactions of this, their first session, ridiculous; if not positively injurious to the colony; and the early outset of New Zealand, as a self-governing colony was not distinguished by any beneficial result to the country.

It unfortunately happened, that during the absence on leave to visit England of the Governor, Sir George Grey, since then promoted to the Cape Colony, the administration of New Zealand was left in the hands of Lieutenant-Governor Wynyard; during whose tenure of office, as "Officer administering the Government of the Colony," the meeting of the General Assembly for 1854 took place. To the honest but mistaken endeavours of this officer to select a ministry, capable of assisting him in con-

THE GOVERNOR OF NEW ZEALAND.

ducting the proceedings of the first session, the very unsatisfactory result of the earliest session of a local Parliament in New Zealand must in a very great measure be attributed.

Any detailed account of the proceedings of a session, so little creditable to the colony, or to the members concerned in it, would be altogether out of place in these pages. A second session of the several Provincial Councils has already taken place; and it is to be hoped, that the session of the General Assembly for the present year (1855) may extinguish the unfortunate impression which its earliest meeting may have left upon the minds of some persons, who have not had opportunity or inclination to examine into the real causes of the futility of the session for 1854.

Colonel Sir T. Gore Brown, the late Governor of St. Helena, has recently been appointed to the post, left vacant by the promotion of Sir George Grey, and from his tried integrity, and capacity for administration, the best wishes and expectations of the friends of good government in New Zealand seem likely to be realized for the future.

1 For a detailed history of the aboriginal New Zealanders, see Sir George Grey's recent work, entitled "Polynesian Mythology and Traditions of New Zealand, by Sir George Grey, late Governor of New Zealand," woodcuts, post 8vo. 10s 6d. Also "Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders, with illustrations of their manners and customs, by R. Shortland, M.A.,"

2 The second session has probably ere now been dissolved, but the details have not reached England, September, 1855.

CHAPTER II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

CHAPTER II.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND – FEATURES OF THE COUNTRY – THE CLIMATE AND SCENERY OF NEW ZEALAND – THE SIX PRINCIPAL SETTLEMENTS.

THE Islands, forming the group called New Zealand, are three in number, and are commonly known by the names of the North, – Middle, – and the Southern, or Stewart's Island. Of these, the latter is but of small extent; and, from its ruggedness, the comparative inclemency of its climate, and its distance from any large harbour, it is at present entirely neglected by all emigrants to New Zealand.

The whole group is about 900 miles in length, extending from the 34th deg.; to 48th deg.; of latitude, south of the equator, and from the most westerly to the most easterly point, a space of nearly 13 degrees, from 166 deg. to 179 deg. of longitude east of Greenwich, or about 780 geographical miles, is included.

The Middle Island is of much more uniform breadth than the Northern one, which becomes

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

very narrow at its northern extremity. A glance, however, at a map will convey a much better idea of the shape of the islands, than any description could do.

The North Island has been estimated to contain 31,174,400 acres; the Middle Island 46,126,080; and Stewart's Island about l,000,000 acres of land, in all 78,300,480 acres; and of this amount it is supposed, that after allowing liberally for mountainous districts, water and irreclaimable morasses or sandy tracts, at least two-thirds are capable of being beneficially occupied by the stockowner or agriculturist. Owing, however, to the want of roads, and bridges over the more important rivers, in many parts of the country, in addition to the fact, that a large portion of the interior of the North Island is at present occupied by the natives, who refuse to alienate any of their territories, beyond the districts already sold by them; it is probable, that many years will elapse, before any large extent of the improvable territories, at a distance from the principal towns and inlets in the coast, can be brought into cultivation.

Like many others of the South Sea islands, New Zealand is of volcanic origin. A chain of

MOUNTAINS.

lofty sharp mountains intersects the Middle Island from N. E. to S. W. The highest peaks of this chain, which is called by the settlers the back-bone of the island, are clothed with perpetual snow; and in winter, when the whole range is snow covered, their appearance is strikingly grand. This range of mountains forms an almost impassable barrier between the east and west coast of the Middle Island, the eastern portion being for the most part a level district, or slightly undulating plain, extending from the mountains to the coast, and varying in breadth from 40 to 60 miles, intersected by numerous rivers, flowing from the high mountain ranges, in a due easterly course towards the sea.

The mountain districts on the western side of this island are of so rugged and inhospitable a nature, as to be almost valueless for pastoral purposes; so that, with the exception of the Nelson settlement in the north of the island, the eastern half only of the Middle Island is occupied by Europeans. 3

The mountains on the North Island do not form so continuous a chain, and with the ex-

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

ception of a few detached peaks, do not attain so great a height, as those of the Middle Island.

There are, however, several extinct volcanoes near the centre of the island, and one in active operation, the name of which is Tongariro, near which are situated Lake Taupo and several smaller lakes, the water of which is naturally tepid. 4

A considerable portion of the country, round Lake Taupo, consists of table lands, lying at an equal elevation with it; and upon these tracts of country, and the districts east and southwest of them, a large proportion of the native population of New Zealand are established.

The number of the natives, or as they call themselves "Maori," now living in the islands of New Zealand, has been variously estimated; perhaps the most accurate computation is about 100,000, nearly 80,000 dwelling in the North Island. 5 They are generally a tall, strong, well-formed race of olive complexion, brave, and possessed of great intelligence,

NATIVE POPULATION.

The following remarks, as to the advantages resulting to the European population, from the intercourse with the natives of the present day, are quoted from a description of Auckland and its neighbourhood, published in 1853.

"Fearing probably a collision between the colonists and the natives, the founders of some of the more recent settlements have planted them far away to the southward, and as distant as possible from the native-peopled districts.

"But a different feeling prevails among the northern colonists; the people of Auckland and its neighbourhood were, for several years, almost entirely supplied by the natives with animal food, fish, potatoes, corn, and firewood; and to a considerable extent with labour. The natives have also been extensive purchasers of horses, and flour-mills, and coasting craft; large consumers of imported goods; and by means of their labour, they have now already augmented the exports of the north. In the absence of the natives, not a single kauri spar would be exported from New Zealand. Their territorial rights, as owners of the soil, too have always been scrupulously recognized, and respected by the settlers in the district; and each party, from the first, has seen the advantage to

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

be derived from the presence of each other; and friendly relations have uniformly been maintained between them. Good-humoured, ever ready to enjoy a joke and a laugh, and always appearing self-satisfied and contented, their presence does much to give life to the northern districts of New Zealand."

It is fair, however, to remind the reader, that the above very favourable character of the native population is not supported by every description that has been published respecting them. Even in the Auckland district, where they appear in a most favourable light, many colonists declare them to be covetous and ungrateful. In the New Plymouth district, their conduct has certainly not been in any way beneficial to the emigrants, and even at the present time, as will be found in the description of New Plymouth, much anxiety and inconvenience is experienced by the colonists, in consequence of the native dissensions, which have produced many skirmishes between the rival tribes. Notwithstanding the favourable opinion of the natives, as a race of mankind, entertained by some of the settlers, and most visitors, in the northern parts of New Zealand, they are not nearly so highly estimated in the

SOIL IN THE NORTH ISLAND.

southern settlements. The few natives indeed, scattered about in small bodies in the southern parts of the country, are universally acknowledged to be an inferior race to their neighbours of the northern district. Being, for the most part, the descendants of vanquished and dispirited tribes, who took refuge in the south, after fleeing from superior adversaries, they have neither the physical advantages, nor the mental energy and intelligence, for which the once blood-thirsty savages of the north are now so distinguished.

A large proportion of the North Island, which has by far the warmest climate, is covered with a rich volcanic soil, like that which, in Italy, is found so well adapted to the cultivation of the vine. New Zealand has indeed in many points been compared to Italy, both in its geographical and geological features. It is a narrow strip of land, containing many tracts available for cultivation, which are separated one from another by ranges of mountains, and watered by streams, of no great importance to navigation, though of great advantage for pastoral and agricultural purposes.

The mountains, both in the North and in the Middle Island, are the sources of numerous

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

streams, which flow into the sea, at various points along the extensive line of coast. As they rise at a considerable elevation, and yet have to reach the sea within a comparatively short distance, they are not generally navigable, for more than a few miles from the sea-shore. Indeed, in many parts of the country, these rivers are a very serious impediment to the progress of the colonists; the beds of some of the larger ones being wide channels of shifting shingle, through which a great body of water forces its way in many distinct, rapid, and shallow streams. 6

From the melting of the snow on the mountain tops in warm weather, and from the rapid escape of the rain from the precipitous slopes, in rainy seasons, floods in the river-beds are of frequent occurrence; and these often render the fording of a river a matter of great hazard, and even impossibility. It will probably be long, before these obstacles are entirely overcome; but, in the mean time, the stock-owners in the less frequented parts of the country, manage to travel to and from their stations, with provisions, or other necessaries, at most times of the year,

CLIMATE.

without experiencing much inconvenience from the delays, sometimes occasioned on a journey by floods in the river-beds. These floods generally pass away as rapidly as they have appeared, and almost always subside in the course of a day or two.

Of course such a large extent of country, as New Zealand, must have very various climates; and upon this point – the climate of New Zealand – I think by far too high an estimate has been formed in England. Almost all Guide Books describe New Zealand as a most beautiful country in its scenery, – which is in some parts most certainly true, though not by any means universally so, – and they also dwell upon the excellence of its climate, against which description many colonists, who live at a distance from the almost tropical warmth of Auckland, and the most agreeable parts of the northern climate, have strongly protested. The disappointment experienced, after landing in the colony, and comparing the reality with the very high opinions they had formed of the climate, previous to leaving England, has in fact been one of the most serious complaints the recent emigrants have made against the country.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

"The climate of New Zealand, though undoubtedly good, has been described injudiciously, and without discrimination – beautiful, delightful, and splendid, are the epithets, which have commonly been applied to it. These terms naturally convey the impression of an atmosphere rarely disturbed by wind and rain. Until its true value comes to be appreciated by them, strangers are at first somewhat rudely disenchanted, by finding that their imaginary paradise can be visited, and that too rather roughly, by the winds and rains of Heaven. This disenchantment frequently takes place at an early period; for it not uncommonly happens that vessels enter a harbour in a gale of wind. Impatient to view the promised land, the new-comer, in spite of the weather, lands without delay. Wading along a sloppy clay road, in a boisterous gale of wind and rain, with perhaps air umbrella turned inside out in one hand, and his hat jammed tight on his head with the other, he can scarcely divest himself of the idea, that the ship must have lost her reckoning, and mistaken her port. But in New Zealand, as elsewhere, a storm is followed by a calm, and if disenchanted to-day, the new arrival will probably be charmed to-

CLIMATE.

morrow by one of those bright, calm and lovely mornings, whose beauty no language can fittingly describe. The fact is, that the climate of a country may be fertile and salubrious, and such is the climate of New Zealand, without being invariably either splendid or delightful." 7

On the whole, the weather of New Zealand in the northern districts, though never excessively hot, is at all seasons of the year very warm, but far less sultry than in the corresponding latitudes of Australia. While, even in the south, the winters are far less inclement than in England, their principal features being violent storms of rain, accompanied by gales from the south-west – which occasionally last several days; but these are not of frequent occurrence. The most disagreeable feature, both in summer and winter, is the wind, which sweeps across the open country, carrying dust from the river beds, and driving rain before it, in a way that occasionally sends whole flocks of sheep flying in confusion before it, in hope of finding shelter in the hollows.

"The climate of New Zealand is better

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

adapted to an English constitution than that of any other part of our colonies. The great preponderance of water overland, in the southern hemisphere, causes a lower degree of heat in any latitude, than in a similar latitude of the northern hemisphere, where land preponderates over water. The temperature of New Zealand, therefore, somewhat resembles that of the land between the south of Portugal and the middle of France, or rather, from its insular character, that which Great Britain would enjoy if its centre lay 1200 miles to the west of Cape Finisterre. The extremes of heat in summer and cold in winter are within very narrow limits; for the immense expanse of ocean, which surrounds these narrow islands on all sides, moderates alike the heat of the tropics and the cold of the antarctic regions. The phenomena of climate, in which we observe England to differ very much from New Zealand, such as the greater cold in winter and during certain winds, appear to arise from the greater proximity of the nearest continents.

"The Seasons are nearly as follow: –

"Spring commences in the middle of August, summer in December, autumn in March, and winter in July. But the summer is

THE SEASONS.

without scorching heat, and the winter free from severe frosts. Except in the most southern parts, or on the high table lands, or on the sides of the highest mountains, ice is never seen after the sun has fairly risen, and snow never lies on the ground; and even at the extreme south, evergreen plants of the myrtle kind grow to the edge of the sea, and thrive better than in Devonshire, or the Isle of Wight. Hot winds and droughts, such as occur in New South Wales and the Cape of Good Hope, are wholly unknown in New Zealand; for a never-failing supply of moisture is shed on the mountain tops and forest lands, by the winds which blow from all quarters over a vast expanse of ocean.

"On the high table lands of the interior, even in the Northern Island, frosts sometimes occur, which affect such plants as acacias and potatoes; but this only happens near the coast; all along which the potato is planted at all seasons of the year, and the opening of the flower-buds is hardly retarded during the progress of winter.

"There is no distinct rainy season, and although it is rare for a fortnight to elapse without at least refreshing showers, determined

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

rainy weather seldom lasts longer than three days, without clear intervals, during which everything, including the atmosphere, becomes quickly dry. With this last qualification it may be considered as a moist climate. There seems little doubt but that more rain falls during the year in New Zealand than in England. It rains during all the months in the year, but the greater quantity falls in the winter and spring; but the longest intervals between rain, and the smallest quantity when it does rain, generally occur about the end of December and January, or at the best period for the harvest of grain. The dews are heavy, particularly during the winter months; in the interior, mists rest over the lakes and river-courses in the mornings, but are soon dispelled by the rising sun, or driven away by the winds. Besides the disposition of the atmosphere to dry quickly, which has already been mentioned, it may be remarked that the physical configuration of New Zealand, and the geological formation of the hills, are in general such, that the water is rapidly carried towards the coast; the lakes have always an outlet, and, considering the unreclaimed state of the country, swamps are not excessively numerous or extensive. Such as do exist, are gene-

MOISTURE OP THE CLIMATE.

rally attributable to the clayey nature of the sub-soil. They are certainly not of sufficient importance to influence the general state of the humidity of the air, or to render it insalubrious. In consequence of this great quantity of moisture, the vegetation is remarkably vigorous, even in places where only a thin layer of vegetable earth covers the rock. Sandy places, which in any other country would be quite barren, are covered with herbage in New Zealand. Everywhere trees and shrubs grow to the margin of the sea, and suffer no harm even from the salt spray. On the coasts of New Zealand, and especially near those parts of it which are high and mountainous, wind is frequent, and tolerably strong. The general direction of strong gales is west or south, varying, however, from these points, according to the form of the coast. Near the shores of Cook's Strait, which is about the centre of the islands, you may sleep agreeably during three-fourths of the year with your bed-room window open; yet when confined to the house by rain or violent winds, you can generally enjoy a small fire, in the partially weather-tight residences of the early colonists. Except in those rare cases, it is most pleasant to be employed

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

out of doors; for not only is vegetation highly luxuriant, whether of the trees or of the pastures, but perpetual, and the atmosphere so clear, that objects are visible at a great distance; and the varying, but ever beautiful, tints of the bright sky, and picturesque scenery are a constant source of admiration. Cattle and sheep never require to be housed, as there is no frost or excessive damps to injure them, and the pasturage lasts throughout the year. Fogs, excepting always the morning exhalations above mentioned, are almost unknown, excepting in the southern extremity of the islands, and even the southerly winds, springing as they do from the antarctic regions, are so tempered by the extent of water over which they pass, as to be totally free from the unpleasant qualities of our English easterly winds."

In the above observations on the climate of New Zealand, I have been largely indebted to Mr. E. J. Wakefield's "Handbook to New Zealand," published in 1848; my own experience having since then fully confirmed all the remarks I have quoted from his book. I myself never remember an entire day, at any season of the year, when a great coat in walking, except during actual rain, would not have proved an

COMPARED WITH ENGLAND.

oppressive encumbrance. On the whole, to sum up these observations on the climate of New Zealand, it may be said, that the weather, though never equal to our best and pleasantest English weather (I mean the glorious long genial days in June, as well as a few of our occasional delightful mornings in spring), is, on the whole, far more equable and agreeable than that of England, and at no time so inclement as the worst, or in fact a great portion of our winter months. The days are in general an hour shorter in summer, and an hour longer in the winter, than in England. Of twilight there is little or none.

I have already mentioned, that there are in New Zealand no quadrupeds, but those imported by Europeans; no fish in the fresh-water lakes, or in any of the rivers, excepting eels; though in great abundance and variety on the sea coast; and but very few birds in most parts of the country. 8

The scenery, especially in the open glades of the forests in the warmer districts, is often ex-

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

tremely beautiful. The tall tree-ferns and large flowering forest trees, for many of the larger trees bear flowers in New Zealand, also add much to the beauty of the woods, but the almost entire absence of animated life, renders them gloomy and monotonous.

Notwithstanding all that may be said in praise of the extreme beauty of the scenery in some portions of New Zealand, where the natural undulations of the ground, the wild mountainous hills in the distance, and dense forests of magnificent timber, interspersed with numerous flowery creepers, running down to the water's edge, with foliage surpassing in richness of colour any of our native trees, all combine to increase the beauty of the landscape, – it will be found by the emigrant, that many of the most populous and valuable districts are placed among scenery which is neither bold nor picturesque, presenting few of the characteristics of New Zealand landscape, and with nothing to remind the spectator that he is looking upon a foreign country.

The least picturesque districts in many parts of the country, affording better pasture, with few shrubs or unsavoury plants to render the herbage unpalateable, and a soil level and un-

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION.

encumbered for vegetation and tillage, are frequently the most prized for agricultural purposes.

Besides other less important places on various parts of the coast, both on the north and the south islands, where a few Europeans have located themselves, there are now altogether six principal Settlements in New Zealand, the communication between which is almost wholly carried on by sea. However, a mail bag is sent, at regular intervals, over-land, between Auckland and Wellington; the messenger generally occupying about three weeks on his journey, which is chiefly performed on foot. Large herds of cattle and sheep have also been driven over-land, and across the rivers from Nelson in the Middle Island, southward to the Canterbury Plains, and again from Otago northward to Canterbury; so that there is now a well defined traversable route over-land, though not easily passable at the river fords, from the sea coast north of the Middle Island, down to the southernmost portion of the island, which is occupied by settlers or their flocks.

The names of these six chief Settlements are, commencing from the northward, Auckland, New Plymouth, and Wellington in the

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OP NEW ZEALAND.

North Island; and Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago in the Middle Island; in addition to which, there is a large number of settlers, scattered about the Bay of Islands to the north of Auckland, and several other small locations, chiefly in the Northern Island, which have not acquired sufficient importance to obtain distinctive appellations for themselves. The South or Stewart's Island has not been colonized by English emigrants.

In the following chapters will be found a more detailed account of each of these Settlements. It will be sufficient in this place to mention them in the order in which they were first organized, as distinct settlements in the colony of New Zealand.

The first to be described is Auckland, the site of which was fixed upon by Captain Hobson, in the year 1840, as the seat of Government in New Zealand, on account of its central position – it being easily accessible by sea from both the eastern and western coasts, and also from its great facility of internal water communication, and the proximity of several smaller ports, abounding with valuable timber – in addition to which, it is the nearest sea-port in New Zealand to the shores of Australia. In

THE SIX SETTLEMENTS.

reference to other parts of New Zealand, it resembles Sidney among the Australian colonies, in being the official residence of the Governor and executive authorities. It has a large trading population, and a great number of vessels sailing from its harbours, and is in fact a commercial capital, rather than a provincial settlement of merchants and storekeepers, having a population chiefly occupied in pastoral and agricultural pursuits, like the more recently established colonies in the southern portions of the islands.

Wellington, founded in 1839, and Nelson, in 1841, were two of the earliest colonies founded by the New Zealand Company. Both of them are now flourishing settlements, the former on the north, the latter on the south of Cook's Strait, thus combining within a small space, on the other side of the world, the names of three of our most celebrated countrymen.

The early colonists of both these settlements incurred hardships and difficulties, which no emigrants since their time have experienced. At first much suffering and disappointment was caused by the hasty manner in which the New Zealand Company sent out emigrants, without having sufficiently prepared for their arrival. And

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF NEW ZEALAND.

afterwards, the natives, when they saw the great improvements in the land, effected by the industry of the colonists, began to repent of having sold all claim to their territories. In the skirmishes, resulting from the violent endeavours of the natives to dispossess the colonists from the allotments, which they had cultivated and built upon, many of the settlers, as well as British soldiers sent out to their assistance, were killed.

These disturbances were however finally overcome by Governor Grey, and for the last ten years both settlements have been steadily and peacefully progressing.

The fourth settlement, on the south-west coast of the North Island, is New Plymouth; it is very beautifully situated, though rather difficult of access by sea, owing to the ruggedness of the coast, and the want of a proper harbour, and moreover of but limited extent, as the natives, who are very numerous in that part of the country, cannot be induced to part with the large tracts of territory in their possession, by which it is surrounded, and which include some of the best agricultural land in the whole of New Zealand. New Plymouth was founded in 1841; the first body

OTAGO – – CANTERBURY.

of emigrants having been, almost entirely, Devonshire people or their friends.

The fifth in order is Otago, of which the port is called Dunedin, established in 1845, by members of the Scotch Presbyterian religion, and has not of late years so rapidly increased in population and importance as most of the other settlements. The pasturage plains to the north of Otago extend into the Canterbury district, as does the pasturage district, north of Canterbury, into the Nelson sheep and cattle grazing lands. In fact, the whole of the country between Nelson and Otago, on the eastern half of the Middle Island, is now as closely occupied by sheep and cattle stations, as it is likely to be for many years to come, until the land in places remote from the seaports begins to be cultivated for agricultural purposes.

The most recent of the six settlements is Canterbury, first acknowledged, as a distinct colony, by the arrival of emigrants from England, on the 16th of December, 1850; which, from its vast open plains affording such an expanse of pasture for the stock-owner, as well as its excellent harbour, rich soil, and other advantages for agriculturists, bids fair to surpass all others in its ultimate importance.

3 See the description of the Canterbury settlement, at Chap. VIII.

4 For a description of the country in the neighbourhood of some of these lakes, lying to the east and north of Lake Taupo, see Chap. III.

5 See Mr. Fox's Six Settlements of New Zealand, where different estimates of the probable number of natives in 1851 are given.

6 See description of Canterbury, Chap. VIII.

7 From Description of Auckland, New Zealand, and its Neighbourhood, p. 17. Stanford, 6, Charing Cross, 1853.

8 A very full list of the indigenous birds and fish of New Zealand, are given in Mr. E. J. Wakefield's Handbook. A complete account of the timber trees has been compiled by Sir W. J. Hooker, and published in the Bishop's Journal for 1847.

CHAPTER III. FULLER DESCRIPTION OF THE SIX CHIEF SETTLEMENTS...

CHAPTER III.

FULLER DESCRIPTION OF THE SIX CHIEF SETTLEMENTS OF NEW ZEALAND.

AUCKLAND.

I HAVE, in the preceding chapter, mentioned very briefly the six chief settlements, taking them in the order of their foundation. An elaborate description of the entire country of New Zealand is altogether beyond the intention of these pages; but, as some of my readers may, either from local connections or other inducements, have turned their thoughts more towards one settlement than another, I have endeavoured to collect, in a small compass, some of the most recent information respecting each of the six settlements, and shall now proceed to describe them in the order enumerated in the preceding chapter. 9 For the description of

FLUCTUATION OF MARKETS.

Auckland, I have been much indebted to a pamphlet, published in 1853, and also to some still more recent information compiled from the pages of the Australian and New Zealand Gazette, from 1853 to September 1855 inclusive. It will be noticed by the reader, that even the space of little more than one year, i.e. from 1853 to the spring of 1855, has effected important changes in the state of the markets, and the immediate prospects, as well as the permanent condition of the entire colony. This, however, will not be at all surprising to persons accustomed to hear of the rapid changes which take place in the development of the resources of rising colonies. Such readers will know that it is probable that many of the inconveniences to new comers, which the later information alludes to, will speedily be amended by the increasing energy aroused among the

AUCKLAND.

colonists, in meeting the difficulties they have to contend with, and other matters will ere long have effected a remedy for themselves. I may mention in this place a matter which cannot be too strongly impressed upon intending emigrants in Europe. At the present average rate of communication, by which nearly four months are consumed in the transit of a letter between New Zealand and England, it follows that from eight to twelve months must elapse, between the dispatch of intelligence from the colony, and the arrival of a reply to the sender. Hence it frequently happens that emigrants find on their arrival in the colony, a very different aspect of affairs from that which had been described to them as the existing state of things when they left England.

In a subsequent page, several places are mentioned, where the most recent information concerning New Zealand can be obtained, and the intending emigrant will do well to make himself acquainted with the latest news from the particular settlement to which he may be going. The best map of New Zealand, hitherto published on a large scale, is that by Arrowsmith, of Soho Square. Maps of several portions of the islands – on a very large scale – may be seen at

EAST AND WEST HARBOURS.

the New Zealand Company's Offices, in Broad Street, London; and also at Messrs. Young, New Zealand Rooms, Adelphi Terrace; and at the Canterbury Emigration Office, 32, Charing Cross. The reader will do well to consult a map, while reading the following descriptions of the best known portions of the islands.

Auckland, has been recently described as follows: – "Imagine the North Island to be not unlike the figure of a wasp, with its small waist almost cut in two in the middle. This waist or isthmus is formed by a deep indentation on the eastern coast, known as the Gulf or Frith of the Thames, and by the extensive harbours of Manukao, on the western coast. For an extent of several miles the waters of these harbours are separated only by a narrow strip of land, or isthmus, about five miles broad. The gulf of the Thames is protected from the sea by the "Barrier " islands, and it affords anchorage throughout its whole extent, and in ordinary weather forms a safe harbour. It also comprises within its limits several inner harbours, easily accessible, commodious, and safe in all weathers. Coromandel Harbour, the Great Barrier, Matakana, Kawau, Mahurangi, Waiheki, and the Waitemata, afford safe

AUCKLAND.

anchorage to vessels of any size, in all weathers. Towards the south-western extremity of the Gulf, lies a group of ten or twelve islands. These islands stretch along in a south-eastern direction for nearly 20 miles, and shut in a long narrow estuary – the Waitemata, in which shelter and anchorage may at all times be found. On the south shore of the western extremity of the Waitemata, stands the town of Auckland. So great is the extent of water communication, that the isthmus on which the town is built, is all but an island. For some four or five miles to the west of the town, a branch of the Waitemata bends southwards, until it reaches within little more than a mile of the Manukao harbour, and about the same distance to the east of the town, the creek or river Tamaki, penetrates in a southerly direction, until it reaches within less than a mile of a branch of the Manuhau, at Otahuhu. Twice in the twenty-four hours the numerous ramifications of the Tamaki afford water-carriage to the town to almost every settler in the district. Ten or 12 miles to the eastward of Tamaki Heads, is the river Wairoa, navigable for about 15 miles by barges and canoes, and having well wooded good land

VALLEY OF THE THAMES.

upon its banks. A few miles still farther to the eastward, and at the extremity of the group of islands before referred to, and taking a southerly direction, you reach the southern extremity of the gulf bounded by the plain or valley of the Thames. This plain is upwards of 60 miles in length, by about 16 or 20 miles in breadth, and is watered throughout its whole extent by two winding rivers, – the Thames and the Waitoa – running parallel to each other and discharging themselves into the gulf at its southern extremity. Both rivers are navigable for barges or small steamers, for a distance of 50 miles at least, and are accessible from Auckland by canoes and open boats, in fine weather. With its numerous harbours, estuaries, rivers, islands, forests, and plains, the gulf of the Thames itself comprises a commercial world in miniature. The wooded rivers to the westward of the town are clothed with Kauri timber, whence spars are floated down by the tide. A small steamer has recently been built to convey the farm produce of the Tamaki to the Auckland market. The island of Waihiki supplies Kauri timber, timber for ship building, firewood, manganese, pigs, potatoes, and Indian corn. The Thames supplies flax and sawn

AUCKLAND.

timber; Coromandel Harbour, native produce of every description. The Great Barrier Island, copper ore. The island of Kawau, copper ore and limestone; and Mahurangi firewood and sawn timber.

As a harbour, in the opinion of the many naval officers who have visited New Zealand, there is none in the colony, excepting the Bay of Islands, equal to the Waitemata, on the east coast of Auckland; of the thousands of vessels of all sizes which have entered and left the port, in the course of the last twelve years, not one has been totally wrecked in, near, or within fifty miles of it. 10

Six miles to the south of the town, across the isthmus, and indenting the west coast, is the harbour of Manukao. This harbour bears some resemblance to a man's right hand pointed eastward – the wrist representing the entrance – the thumb, that branch of it which runs up to Onehunga, the nearest point to Auckland – the middle fingers, the creeks or branches, which penetrate into the Tamakura district – and the little finger, stretched out at right angles to the three middle fingers, repre-

MANUKAO HARBOUR.

senting the Waihuku branch or inlet, which runs in a southerly direction, until it reaches within less than a mile and a half of the head of the Awaroa Creek, which runs into the Waikato river. The Waikato takes its rise near Lake Taupo, almost in the centre of the island, and runs in a northerly course, with a slight inclination to the westward, until within about 15 miles of the south-east extremity of Manukao harbour, when it bends at a right angle to the westward, and forms a small harbour, about 20 miles to the south of the entrance of the Manukao.

The Waikato is navigable for canoes for not less than 100 miles. About 60 or 70 miles from the sea, it is joined by the Waipa river, flowing from the south, and navigable for canoes, for upwards of 50 miles. The delta formed by these two rivers, is a tract of rich level land, and they water an extensive plain only separated from the plain of the Thames, by a broken range of low hills.

Thus it will be seen that these distant plains have water communication with Auckland, with but two short interruptions, viz. the portage of a mile and a half, which divides the head

AUCKLAND.

of the Awaroa, from the head of the Wahuku inlet, and the isthmus of six miles, which divides Onehunga on the west coast of the island from Auckland on the east coast.

Native grown wheat and flour, flags, pigs, and Indian corn, are brought down the Waikato, from the interior of the country, in canoes, carried over the portage, conveyed across the Manukao harbour, in canoes or small craft, to Onehunga; and carted by a good road from Onehunga to Auckland.

During the summer of 1852, the natives brought to market in Auckland, in canoes alone, upwards of 1100 kits of onions (about twenty tons), upwards of 4000 kits of potatoes (more than one hundred tons), besides corn, cabbages, and kumeras; peaches grown by the natives, and sufficiently good for culinary purposes, are very abundant and cheap. During the early part of the summer of 1853, upwards of 1200 kits were brought to Auckland by canoes alone.

The following description of the districts, bordering the Waikato river and its neighbourhood, south of Auckland, is taken from a recent letter from the colony.

SOUTHERN DISTRICTS.

"Auckland, July 22nd, 1854.

"I will now endeavour to give you some account of my travels. My principal trip was a tour of inspection through the districts where there are mills, or mills proposed to be built. I proceeded first by land about seven miles to Onehunga, then embarked in a little ferry boat, and crossed the Manukao harbour, to near the mouth of the Waikato river, on the west coast; then by means of canoes, ascended the river, fifty miles ; calling at the various stations as we passed – I then branched off into the Waipa, about thirty miles farther, and arrived at Otawao. The Rev. – Morgan's Church Mission Station. This I made my station for a time, visiting all the mills in the neighbourhood. I then crossed over to the west coast again to Cawhia, taking in my route such mills as were in the way, and returning by another road back again to Otawao; this part of my journey I walked, with two Maories to carry my luggage. After about a fortnight's rest, I started again in a similar manner, towards the east coast, crossing the Waikato, the Thames, and other streams, and proceeded to the lakes of Rotorua, Roto Mahana, &c; then to the coast at Maketa, from thence to Touranga, where I again embarked in a small schooner, owned and manned by natives, and arrived again in Auckland, traversing the greater part of the middle district of the North Island. The Waikato is a rather rapid river, in some places shallow, being dispersed as it were between a number of small islands; but I have no doubt with a little clearance it will become a very valuable river, fit for the navigation of a

AUCKLAND.

small steamer. It would then open up a vast extent of country which is now lying almost waste. The Waipa is a quieter river, with a greater depth of water, which would also furnish additional intercourse. The interior of this part of the island is pretty level, mostly fern land, with but little timber, and is mostly unoccupied. In some parts there are considerable patches of land under cultivation, by the Maories, both in wheat and potatoes. Peaches are plentiful in the season all over the country, and in some places there are many apples. There are very few Europeans, except the Missionaries, and few traders. The land is at present entirely in the hands of the natives. But the most interesting part of my journey, was to the lakes and hot springs. The Rotorua is I think six or eight miles across, with an island in the middle. On the west-side is a settlement, with boiling springs in all directions, between the houses; some are like boiling mud of a dirty brown, others white like chalk, some slate colour, and others pink ; whilst others are clear water. At one part you see a large pond boiling up fiercely, with a number of women sitting round boiling their food; potatoes, fish, are put into a basket, with a string tied to it; it is dropped over the side, and the women wait until the food is sufficiently cooked. At another part is a bath of moderate heat, with a number of persons in it up to their necks in the water, some for pleasure, and others for the cure of various diseases. At another part is a chasm, from which is issuing steam of considerable pressure, like, the blowing off a steam boiler. At about three miles

LAKES AND HOT SPRINGS.

distance, there are other springs more beautiful in their appearance, from the ground around them being covered with a beautiful incrustation of lime in curious forms. But the most celebrated of these springs is at Roto Mahana, about twelve miles farther on. Here, as at Rotorua, the springs are of various descriptions, and distributed over a considerable space of country. The principal is a circular basin of considerable size – the water is beautifully clear and of an azure blue colour. It boils most furiously, and is surrounded by semicircular basins and ridges of a white incrustation, forming as it were terraces or steps curiously waved with ridges, something like the sand at low water, but of a greater variety of forms. Any thing near becomes incrusted as with hoar-frost. The lake is said to be 80 feet deep. These springs are indeed wonderful curiosities. I am now preparing for another trip to the Waikato, to endeavour to teach some of the natives the art of millering, and the general management of their mills."

The remarks here given, respecting the expense of living in Auckland, at different periods during the last two years, will be of interest to all intending colonists of New Zealand.

The following was written in 1853: – "Almost every thing necessary to comfort and convenience may now be procured in Auckland, but not always of the best quality. Although

AUCKLAND.

cheaper than Wellington, Auckland is by no means a cheap place of residence, certainly not more so than an English town of the same size. House rent and servants' wages are at least double what they are in England. But there are no taxes, rates, or dues of any kind. Clothing of all kinds is also of course dearer in New Zealand than in England. But wine, spirits, and groceries are for the most part cheaper. Bread and butcher's meat are about the same. The fish caught near Auckland, although of but moderate quality, is plentiful and cheap. Vegetables are also abundant. To those who live in the bush, or at a distance from the town, and who are independent of hired labour, the cost of living in the northern part of New Zealand is very cheap. A tolerable house can be built of Raupo, a kind of bulrush, with either a thatch or shingle roof, at a cost of about £10. Pigs can be purchased from the natives at less than 2d. a pound. Poultry and turkeys in particular, thrive better than in England, and almost keep themselves, and wheat, potatoes, pumpkins, can be easily raised, or can be purchased for a trifle from the natives. And for life in the bush, the most inexpensive clothing is sufficient."

MARKET PRICES IN 1853.

Compared with the climate of Wellington, that of Auckland is a few degrees warmer, both in summer and in winter; the air of Auckland, too, being somewhat more soft and genial. Auckland has less wind than Wellington, but more rain.

The following were the average market prices in 1853.

PROVISIONS. – Bread, 2 lbs. loaf, 5d. Tea (£6 per chest) 1s. 9d. per lb. Sugar (moist) from 28s. to 32s. per cwt. per lb. 3d. to 4d. Coffee, per lb. 1s. 3d. Beef and Mutton, per lb. 5d. to 6d. Pork, per lb. 4d. Butter (fresh) per lb. 1s. 6d. ditto (salt) 1s. Potatoes, per cwt. 3s. 6d. Eggs, per dozen, 1s. Cheese (English) 1s. 6d. (Auckland) 1s. per lb. – SHIP'S STORES. Blocks single, per inch, 5d. to 6d.; double, 10d. to 1s. Anchors, sizes, 40s. to 50s. per cwt. Rope (Auckland) 38s. per cwt. Cordage (Europe) 45s. to 50s. per cwt. Canvass, 40s. to 48s. per bolt. Oakum, 30s. per cwt. Tar (Stockholm) 35s. to 38s. per barrel. Spars (New Zealand) from 4d. per foot.

An article published in the "Sydney Morning Herald," during October, 1854, entitled "The Province of Auckland. Its rapid development and altered aspect," from which the following

AUCKLAND.

observations are abridged, contains much that is likely to be of interest to emigrants to Auckland during the present year 1855.

"Casting a rapid glance at the transactions and influences of 1853, and drawing a passing sketch of the events of the current year, 1854, I must not omit a comment or two on the failure of the potato crop, the numerous commercial disappointments and the extraordinary rise in the provision market arising therefrom. Food generally may be safely affirmed to have advanced fully a hundred per cent.

"In the course of the year 1853, the ability of Auckland to develope itself as a province capable of growing and exporting a considerable amount of available produce first became known to the neighbouring colonies. The supplies previous to that year had been so limited as to excite little or no attention, and if we look back for three or four years, instead of being as now exporters, we shall find the Auckland colonist carrying on a somewhat extensive import traffic with Sydney and Hobart Town, and that too in their present articles of export, viz.: potatoes, flour, oats, cheese, wheat, maize, and the like. The first small beginnings of our export trade took place in the year 1851, and such was the

EXPORTS SINCE 1851.

panic which the shipment of food then begot in the breasts of some of the political economists of Auckland, that an address was actually presented to the then Lieutenant-Governor, praying that his Excellency would be pleased to interfere and save the colonists from starvation. No interference, however, did take place, nor did any famine ensue. The export trade was suffered to make its small and successful commencement. It extended its operations throughout the year 1852, the total exports of which were estimated to amount to nearly £53,000. In 1853 the exports were still more largely increased, and their total estimated value has been reckoned to reach to £145,000. The agricultural operations for the harvest of 1854 greatly surpassed those of every previous year, and an immense breadth was planted with potatoes. A summer of unusual drought marred the industry and blighted the prospects of the farmers, many of whom scarcely recovered the amount of seed they had sown. This was not only a cause of serious loss to the producer, but of much collateral injury to Auckland. During 1853, the tonnage for shipment was always inferior to the amount of produce requiring to be shipped. To provide against this, and to

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afford every facility for carrying the large (expected) increase in the produce of 1854, a greatly increased amount of shipping was drawn to Auckland at an early period of the season. The potato and onion crops had proved a failure. Timber in the Australian markets was in less urgent demand, and although the prices there were still comparatively high, they were, nevertheless, by no means such as to induce buyers at the extravagant figure to which the New Zealand sawyers had raised their wages. The consequence was that ships, which under a different state of affairs might have been loaded and despatched in a week or two, lay at their anchors in some instances for two or three months, and even then departed with little more than half a cargo. This naturally embittered the shipmasters, and the infant efforts of Auckland to establish herself as the great exporting country, which she must speedily become, were attempted to be ridiculed and talked down.

"I am happy to be enabled to say that, whatever the losses and disappointments resulting from the partial failure of last harvest, they have in no degree impaired the agricultural enterprise of the present season. Notwithstand-

WATER CARRIAGE.

ing the enormously high rate of wages, and the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient number of labourers upon any terms, fields are being fenced, cleared, and cultivated in every direction, and most extensive additions are making to the pasture lands of the Auckland district, which in point of luxuriant beauty, and ability to sustain a heavy stock, may favourably compare even with the best pastures in England.

"Under such circumstances, it is to be hoped that the export season of 1854-5, will fully redeem all the defalcations experienced during that of 1853-4.

"The immense facilities conferred by our superabundant means of water carriage have not escaped the attention of recent arrivals. Many of the out-settlements of the gulf of Houraki are becoming extensively occupied. On the magnificent river Mahurangi, cultivation is in active progress, its lands have been eagerly sought, and largely purchased, and at the head of its navigation, and in a central position, a village, called Warkworth, has recently been laid out.

"A Steam Company has been originated, with the view of connecting Auckland more closely

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with its numerous and thriving out-ports. The time for the establishment of such a company has fully arrived, and its operations will tend to render the industry of the colonists more generally and immediately beneficial.

"If materials could only be procured in sufficient quantity, the city of Auckland would speedily be greatly extended. Houses, or house accommodation are, and long have been, most difficult to be had. Cottages, which a year since were easily procurable at a rental of 4s. to 8s. a week, are now clutched at from 10s. to 16s., whilst those which were wont to be let at from 10s. to 12s., readily command from 20s. to 25s. People continue to arrive, but the power of building has almost ceased. Bricks cannot be made fast enough; and when made, indifferent as they are in quality, they are greedily taken at £5 per thousand. Lime is half a crown a bushel. But when a boat-load of timber does happen to arrive, there is an eager scramble among builders and contractors for its purchase, and that at most exorbitant prices. Shingles, which not long since fetched from 8s. to 12s., have been hunted up in every direction at 38s. and 40s. per thousand. Palings have risen from 6s. to 20s. and 25s. per hun-

HOUSE ACCOMMODATION.

dred, and are also exceedingly difficult to be procured. Master builders, under such circumstances, find it impossible to fulfil their engagements. Contracts entered into six months ago, with a conditional clause of being completed within four, six, or eight weeks of their being signed, are still waiting the supply of materials to be fully completed. Frames and skeletons of houses may be seen in numerous directions. Even the General Assembly House must have remained unfinished, but that a portion of the timber of the Queen Street wharf was placed at the disposal of the contractor. Every house, cottage, and hovel is fully occupied: yet whilst the cry for house room is increasing, our carpenters and joiners are comparatively idle. This has a mischievous effect, in disgusting the fluctuating population, drawn from the neighbouring colonies, who come hither without due consideration.

"New comers arrive in Auckland, under the most erroneous impressions of its actual condition; people who have, in all probability, derived their information of what Auckland was from those who left it two or three years since. Such colonists may have stated, and with great truth, that, at the date of their de-

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parture, nearly half of the houses in Auckland were to be let, and at almost nominal rentals; that the means of living were abundant and cheap; that beautiful pork could be purchased for 2 1/2d., beef and mutton for 5d., and splendid bacon for 6d. per lb.; that fowls could be had for 1s., ducks for 1s. 6d., turkeys for 3s., and geese for 3s. 6d. a piece; that milk was sold at 2d. a quart, butter for 1s. per lb., and eggs for 1s. a dozen; that a kit 11 of potatoes, or of cabbages, weighing from 75 to 100 lbs. could be bought for 1s. each; that fire-wood cost from 6s. 6d. to 8s. per ton, and that all other necessaries were proportionably cheap. All this was true; but the gold of Australia has changed all this, and had they who have come amongst us, many of them to return disappointed, but given the least reflection to the subject, they would not have failed to perceive, that a young country, exporting to the full extent of its powers of production, could no longer be a cheap one.

"Besides, with all this fluctuating and inconsiderable migration, the population of Auckland, for the last two years, has been steadily and

COROMANDEL GOLD DIGGINGS.

sensibly increasing; so that, however much it is to be regretted that emigrants should arrive amongst us only to feel dissatisfied and disappointed, they ought to attribute the cause more to their own want of forethought than to any defect in the colony; indeed, the very lack of accommodation, the high price of food, the enormous wages given, and the ruinous paucity of labourers, afford the most incontestable demonstrations of the great progress and prosperity of the colony.

"It must not be forgotten, that to the humidity of the province of Auckland, the exceeding richness of its pastures, and the greater certainty of its agricultural operations is entirely attributable. Our winter is a wet, and often a severe one. Spring is mild, though weeping. But summer and autumn are seasons of great and genial beauty; and although tempered with such occasional fertilizing showers as are calculated to preserve the pastures, still, in Auckland, there is far less rain throughout the year than what falls in Australia. The destroying floods of winter, and the parching droughts of summer are consequently here unknown."

"There has been nothing doing with the Coromandel Gold Fields near Auckland. And

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this is not because they are considered to be a failure, but because the native and European races can make money in as sure, and in a much more profitable manner. The industry of the natives is beyond all praise. The quantities of Kauri gum brought to market are immense; and as an index of native prosperity, I need only draw your attention to the estimated value of the canoe trade for the last two years. In 1852, it was £6000; in 1853, £12,000; and this year there is every reason to believe it will still be very much more."

A writer from Auckland, in February, 1855, referring to the extension of the Maori trade, says, "In five years more, I feel convinced that the Maories, with their trade, agriculture, and maritime enterprise, will have become so essentially British that the amalgamation of the native and European races will be complete. If you only look at the rapid progress of the native canoe trade, you will feel the force of this reasoning. Three years ago, it did not amount in value to £4000 a year. This year it touches upon £18,000; and from the amount and value of the annually increasing cultivations, it cannot fail progressively and prosperously to extend."

INCREASE OF SHIPPING.

"There is another and most material point in the progress of Auckland, to which, as an old and practical colonist of Australia, 1 cannot forbear drawing the most pointed attention. It is to the increasing trade and the large amount (yearly augmenting) of colonial built, and colonial owned, shipping. On the 1st January, 1854, the shipping belonging to the port of Auckland amounted to nearly 8000 tons. It has since received great accessions, and as far as our enterprising and intelligent shipbuilders can command the means of construction, their hands are fully employed. Eight thousand tons of shipping is a very large amount to be possessed by a province not thirteen years old. To me, who can recollect Hobart Town since the 25th year of her existence, for months together without any but a small vessel or two in port, and who can likewise remember Sydney, the Mistress of the Southern Pacific, in the 40th year of her settlement, with fewer ships in harbour than I now look upon here, the maritime progress of Auckland is indeed astonishing."

The following extracts, alluding to the probability of an increase of labour, and necessary supplies in the province of Auckland, will be of interest in this place, as tending to explain the

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causes of the great expense of provisions and other outgoings, referred to in the preceding summary. They were published in the Australian and New Zealand Gazette, in an article bearing date, Auckland, Sept. 1, 1854, entitled, "Auckland – Prospects of 1855."

"Our markets can scarcely be called satisfactory, inasmuch as, without the same golden resources as those possessed by Australia, we are paying the same (and in some instances, higher) prices for almost every article of consumption. The unprecedented drought of the last season, and the failure of the potato crop in consequence, has unquestionably been the chief cause of the present high prices that rule our corn and provision markets. These, however, will assuredly modify themselves in the course of the next five or six months, when, it is to be hoped, a very different return will be reaped from the various crops which have been planted this season, with an energy, and of a breadth, likely to prove eminently beneficial both to the home consumer and the exporter.

"Looking at the existing state of the grain market, and basing our opinions in a great degree upon the experience of those most largely and practically conversant in that trade, we do not

PROSPECTS OF 1855.

hesitate to say, that both wheat and flour have attained their culminating price, and that any further alteration is likely to be of a downward tendency. From calculations carefully made, it was recently estimated that at least 120,000 bushels of wheat are still (Sept. 1854) on hand; so that, making liberal allowance for the requirements of the present extensive seed-time, and estimating the consumption of Auckland at between five-and-thirty and forty tons of flour a week, there must remain an ample surplus of wheat for all her wants; so that even the present prices may well be regarded as excessive."

"All sorts of colonial dairy produce are in demand, and likely to continue so. Poultry of all descriptions are scarce and high in price. In fact, our largely increasing population, and the extensive demands for the supply of a shipping trade extending every day, have given a value to these minor commodities altogether unprecedented. Add to this the high price of food for rearing, and fattening, and the scarcity and enhanced value of poultry will at once become apparent.

"Butchers' meat has risen to an almost famine price, and, it is to be feared, is likely to

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continue so for some time. The rise is easily accounted for. Auckland, in the first place, has never been sufficiently stocked. The increase has hitherto been unequal to keep pace with the demand for animal food, and at the same time to propagate stock to meet the requirements of a growing population. Importations, to pay, are, moreover, difficult at the prices now ruling in Australia; and for this reason, that the Auckland yeomanry have all along experienced the most heart-breaking difficulties in acquiring runs upon which to turn newly imported stock. Grass in this province is a creation, not an indigenous plant as in Australia, and although it is readily and rapidly produced, and grows with a luxuriance unsurpassed in any other quarter of the globe, still it can only be grown on private properties, or upon grounds partly cleared of the tea-tree – manuka – and the fern. A want of sufficient land has been the besetting grievance of the Auckland colonists. From that grievance they have hardly yet escaped. The Crown lands about Auckland have become private property; they are rapidly being enclosed, and as rapidly being rendered productive. The meadow field and corn-close are in every direction depriving

PASTURE – NATIVE LABOUR.

the cattle of their commons. This, although in due time it will more than work out its own remedy, is the cause of temporary injury. Hence the present high price of butchers' meat. The evil, however, is but the growth of a great inherent prosperity. And with grazings which in a few years will, in all probability, be abundantly to be let, and with steam ships landing fat or good conditioned stock upon them, the superior advantages of Auckland as a feeding country will at once become apparent."

"Building materials, in consequence of the great deficiency of labour, are not only scarce and high in price, but almost impossible to be had. But for this Auckland would have been long ere now greatly and beneficially extended, and many important public works have been executed."

"Kauri gum, which in the gathering has long engrossed a very large share of native industry, is on the decline. Flax is more scarce and dear, and likely to become more so, until some mechanical process shall be established for rendering it a merchantable commodity. Whilst the natives remained in a state of untutored barbarism, supplies of flax were easily

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to be procured; but their industry can now be turned to much more profitable account – they are indefatigable in their pursuit of an improved system of husbandry, and as mere day labourers they can readily earn from 5s. to 6s. a day. Flax cannot be prepared at such wages, consequently it will either cease to be prepared at all, or must be prepared by the aid of competent machinery."

The Financial Statement for the whole of New Zealand for 1854, shows a balance unappropriated of £108,986. The net revenue was £146,315; and the total charges £37,329. Of the revenue, £100,000 was derived from land sales.

Lieutenant-Governor Wynyard, the "officer administering the Government," in transmitting to the House of Representatives the financial statement and estimates for the year 1855, dated Auckland, September 4th, 1854, prefaces his statement by observing, "Although the prosperity of the colony is such that we might confidently trust in the increase of its revenues, I have not thought it advisable, in preparing the estimates, to assume any increase of the ordinary revenue, over that estimated for the year ending the 30th of September, 1854."

FINANCIAL STATEMENT.

The following is a summary of the estimates for the year 1854: –

[Financial Statement: Estimates for the Year 1854]

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[Financial Statement: Estimates for the Year 1854, cont'd.]

LAND REVENUE.

ESTIMATED GROSS RECEIPTS FROM THE DISPOSAL OF CROWN LANDS.

[Land Revenue]

The probable amount available for the expenditure of the province of Auckland, for the

IMMIGRATION – POPULATION.

year 1855, is estimated at £45,225 16s. 11d. Of this sum, after paying the proposed cost of the various establishments, it is estimated that £29,225 will be at the disposal of the provisional council for public works and immigration. "This," says the New Zealander, November 7th, 1854, "is a most encouraging prospect. The judicious appropriation of such a sum may, and we trust will, prove the means of giving a powerful additional impetus to the progress of Auckland."

It was announced by some of the most recent despatches from the colony, that the Government had chartered several vessels to bring over mechanics and agriculturists from Melbourne, free of charge, with the hope of supplying the deficiency of labour in New Zealand.

The European population of Auckland at the present date is estimated at about 10,000.

The following lists of market prices, for provisions and necessaries, and also for stock, in the neighbourhood of Auckland, are taken from local newspapers of April and May, 1855.

COMMERCIAL RECORD.

"Auckland, 13th April, 1855.

"The shipment of American goods by the three-masted schooner Carbon from Melbourne

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was brought to the hammer by Messrs. Connell and Ridings, on Tuesday. The sale was well attended, and the generality of the articles offered went off freely and at paying prices. There were a considerable number of pannelled and sash doors and window sashes, which in the present demand for building materials were readily taken. We give an abstract of the goods sold per Carbon, and an average of the prices they fetched.

"Chairs, wood seats, 58s. per dozen; do., cane seats, 60s. per dozen; buckets, three hoops, 24s per dozen; tubs, per nest, 31s. per dozen; clothes pins per gross, 2s. 6d. to 3s.; American weighing machines, half ton, 9l.; do. quarter ton, 7l; do. three cwt., 4l. 15s.; pork per barrel, 4l. 2s. 6d.; beef per tierce, 7l.; gunny bags, 8s. per dozen; Carolina rice, 3 3/4 d. per lb.; stained parlour tables, 33s. to 44s.; pannelled doors, 20s. to 30s.; do. sash do., 40s.; sashes per pair, 18s. to 23s. 6d.; preserved and bottled fruits, 13s. to 20s.; 30 hours and 8 day clocks, 17s. to 27s.; carpenters' planes, assorted, 3s. to 6s. each.

"The Flour Market is without present alteration; but the demand for produce for home consumption, and for shipment, is both active

MARKET PRICES.

and on the increase, more so than we fear our means of supply will enable us to keep up. Wheat, oats, and potatoes, as will be seen by our quotations, are on the advance; but, as we have already said, we doubt our ability of any continuous supply."

AUCKLAND MARKET PRICES,

April 13th, 1855.

"THE MILLS. – Mr. Fletcher's Steam Mill: – Flour, first quality, 35l., seconds, 32l. per ton. Wheat may be quoted at from 10s. 6d. to 11s. 6d. per bushel; oats (a good supply), 6s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per bushel; barley, none; maize, 6s to 7s. per bushel; bran, 2s. 6d. per bushel.

"AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE. – New potatoes, 10l. to 11l. per ton; wheat, 12s. to 13s. per bushel; oats, 8s. to 9s. per bushel; maize, 7s. 6d. to 8s. 6d. per bushel; barley, none; clover seed (white), plentiful; red, 112s. per cwt.; grass seeds – rye (scarce), 15s.; mixed, 8s. to 10s. per bushel; straw, 5l. to 5l. 10s. per ton; hay (pressed for shipment), nominal.

"DAIRY PRODUCE. – Butter (fresh), 2s. 6d. to 2s. 9d.; salt, 2s. 3d. to 2s. 6d. per lb.; cheese (colonial), 1s. to 1s. 3d. per lb.; hams, 1s.; bacon, 10d. per lb.; fowls, 5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d per couple; ducks (scarce), 7s. per couple;

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geese, 7s. to 8s. each; turkeys (scarce), 12s. to 14s. each; lard, 9d. to 10d. per lb.; milk, 8d. per quart; eggs, 3s. to 3s. 3d. per dozen.

"PROVISIONS. – Beef (fresh), 8d., retail, 9d. to 10d. per lb.; Irish (wholesale), 7d. to 8d. per lb.; Sydney, 6l. 10s. per tierce; mutton, 8d. to 9d. per lb.; veal (scarce), 10d. to 11d. per lb.; pork (fresh), 7d. to 9d.; New Zealand salt do., 5d. to 6d. per lb.; lamb, per quarter, 6s. to 7s.; bread, 9d. per 2lb. loaf; biscuit, cabin, 45s.; ship, 38s.; pilot, 40s. per cwt.

"STOCK. – Working bullocks, from 30l. to 35l. per pair; calves, 40s. to 60s.; ewes, 25s.; wedders, 22s.; horses for the plough, 50l. to 60l.; cart, 70l. to 90l.; hacks, 25l. to 35l.

"GROCERIES. – Tea, congou, 8l. per chest; hysonskin (little used), 6l. 10s to 7l. per chest; sugar, raw, 3 1/2d. to 4 1/2d. per lb.; loaf, 6d. to 6 1/2d. per lb.; refined, Cossipore, 5 1/2d. per lb.; coffee, 10d. per lb; soap, 40s. to 45s. per cwt.; candles, Sydney mould, 11d, per lb.; Belmont sperm, 1s. 6d. to 1s. 8d. per lb.; sperm, 2s. to 2s. 6d. per lb.; salt, Liverpool, 6l. to 6l. 10s. per ton; dairy salt, 8l. per ton; pickles, pints (fair sale), 12s. to 12s. 6d. per dozen; salad oil, scarce; tobacco (a fair supply), 1s. to 1s. 3d. in bond; duty., 1s. per lb.; soda, crystals, 21s. per

MARKET PRICES.

cwt.; sperm oil, none; black oil, none; 3-bushel bags, 24s. to 27s. per dozen.

"WINES. – Champagne, claret, and Madeira very dull; port, 7l. to 8l. per quarter cask; in cases, dull; sherry, nominal.

"BUILDING MATERIALS. – Timber, 24s. to 26l. per 100 feet; shingles (scarce), 24s. to 30s. per 1000; palings, 18s. to 20s. per 100; bricks, 7l. per 1000.

"BOOTS AND SHOES. – Both men's and women's (heavy) are in demand; Napoleons, 35s. to 40s. per pair; Wellingtons, English, 30s. to 32s.; colonial, 35s. to 40s. per pair; Bluchers and Oxford, English, 12s; colonial, 14s. per pair; women's cloth boots, 8s. to 10s. per pair; shoes, 4s. 6d. to 6s. per pair.

"SUNDRIES. – Firewood (on the beach), 13s. to 14s. per ton; coals, 3l. to 4l. per ton; posts and rails, 4l. 10s. per 100; flax (very scarce and in demand), 28l. to 34l. per ton, according to quality; kauri gum, little or none in the market, and prices nominal."

RATES OF WAGES,

April 13th, 1855.

"Masons, per diem, 12s.; bricklayers, per diem, 12s.; carpenters, per diem, 12s.; cabinetmakers, per diem, 12s. to 13s.; farm servants

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(with rations), from 35l. to 50l. per annum; female servants, 8s. to 12s. per week; day labourers, 7s. to 8s. per diem."

PRICES OF STOCK,

May, 1855.

"SALES. – The stock sales at Otahutu continue to increase in frequency, as in extent and value. On the 18th inst., Mr. Newman disposed of sixty-seven head of cattle, about six score sheep, a few horses, a lot of pigs, and a variety of harness and farming implements. The attendance of buyers was good. The sale opened dully, but became more animated as it proceeded, closing in a satisfactory manner. The proceeds exceeded 900l. Fat stock realized full prices.

"The following is an analysis of the sale: – Twenty-one heifers averaged 8l. 7s. 10d., the highest fetching 12l., and the lowest 5l. 10s.; eighteen steers averaged 9l. 13s. and a fraction, the highest commanding 13l., and the lowest realising only 4l. 10s.; eleven cows, two or three with calves by their sides, averaged 9l. 10s. 6d., the highest bringing 14l., and the lowest 7l.; seven calves averaged 4l. 9s. the highest brought 7l. 5s., the lowest 3l.; six oxen averaged 10l. 17s. 6d., the highest fetching 13l. 10s., and the lowest 8l. 10s.; a bullock

PRICES OF STOCK.

brought 15l. 10s., a bull 16l., and a pair of working oxen 60l. A lot of 114 sheep fetched 22s. per head; four horses realising respectively 40l., 37l., 25l., and 10l.; and sixteen small pigs were sold at 10s. each.

"On the 24th, Mr. Newman held a sale at Newmarket. There was a tolerable supply of stock of a mixed character, but not quite so many buyers as are usually assembled. Well bred cattle and fat stock sold freely, realising full prices; forty-one head changed hands, and a lot of sheep fetched 29s. per head. The proceeds of the day's sale exceeded 600l. With respect to lean stock, the long and severe drought, and the prospect of the approaching winter have reduced both the price and the demand. At one time, serious fears of a heavy loss of cattle were entertained; but, as the late genial rains have been followed by a succession of mild and growing weather, and as there is now a good and increasing spread of nutritious pasture, it is to be hoped the cattle may be got into sufficient case before the weather finally breaks."

The New Zealander of June 16th, 1855, contains the following Note for Immigrants of the Labouring class.

AUCKLAND.

"Board and lodging, in Auckland, for single men, 30s. per week; wages averaging from 8s. to 10s. per day. Married people, with families, if they are fortunate enough to get houses, will have to pay for a three-roomed wooden cottage, about 15s. per week. The necessaries of life are much about the same as in Sydney."

I have, in this chapter, dwelt at some length upon the fluctuations of the markets, and the probable increase of expenditure, now necessary for a residence in Auckland as compared with that of recent years, as well as upon the counter-balancing circumstances attending such increased expenses; because any state of affairs not entirely local, influencing one portion of the islands of New Zealand, will, in some measure, affect the provision and labour market of all other portions. And since no branch of colonial information is more important to intending emigrants than accurate particulars on these subjects, I have, in describing the oldest and most populous of the settlements of New Zealand, endeavoured to anticipate disappointment, by impressing on the reader a fact well known to all actual colonists, viz.: that in countries newly established, and undergoing great alterations in their progress and resources, unlooked for cir-

EMIGRANT EXPECTATIONS.

cumstances may arise within very short periods; – even during the few months consumed between the departure from England of a vessel with emigrants, and their arrival in the colony.

Such unexpected fluctuations often prove to have a permanent influence over the prospects of the immigrant of small means, who expects, on his arrival, to be a consumer and a hirer of labour, and is not competent from his own resources to become a supplier of produce, or able to provide himself with the labour requisite to establish him in his adopted home.

The newly-arrived immigrant perhaps finds his capital inadequate to embark in the particular occupation for which he quitted England. And, having been disappointed in his original plans, his means are exhausted, and he himself disheartened at the gradual loss of his property, before he can gain a foot-hold in some employment of a different nature from that upon which his thoughts have hitherto been exclusively employed.

9 I am quite aware that the six chapters (III. to VIII.) describing1 the settlements of New Zealand, contain very little original information. A few years, or even seasons, effect such important changes in the progress of any newly colonised district, that a mere general description of the whole of New Zealand, from personal information, unless actually written in the colony, would be of little value to the intending emigrant. I have carefully read over all the colonial authorities, published during the last year and a half that I could obtain; and I have endeavoured to give the reader the most recent information on all points I have referred to. Any person not interested in the local history of the various settlements, had better at once pass on to Chapter IX.

10 From Description of Auckland and its Vicinity; 1853, price 3d. Stanford, 6, Charing Cross.

11 The natives generally bring their produce to market in neatly made baskets, plaited from flax, and known by the name of "Maori kits."

CHAPTER IV. WELLINGTON.

CHAPTER IV.

WELLINGTON.

I HAVE already stated, that this book is not intended to contain a minute description of every portion of the islands of New Zealand. The appearance of the country, in general, has already been described at some length; and the Auckland district, forming the northern portion of the island, of which Wellington is the southernmost settlement, has been more minutely dwelt upon than others; because, – from the beauty of its scenery, the great amount of its shipping, and the number of natives frequenting the neighbourhood of its harbours, – Auckland is more likely to have attracted the attention of persons, who form their ideas of a whole country from the most salient points of interest which it affords, than the less populous, but, perhaps, more strictly emigrant settlements in other parts of New Zealand.

Wellington possesses one great advantage over Auckland, in being more easily accessible from other portions of the colony. And it holds, as a trading port, a very prominent, if

COMPARISON WITH AUCKLAND.

not actually the leading mercantile position. It also has annexed to it very considerable tracts of pasturage, running up into the country northward and eastward of the harbour, and, by means of these, contributes largely to the exports of New Zealand wool. This is a branch of produce, in which Auckland, owing to its deficiency in pasturage, suitable for large flocks of sheep, or of cattle, has hitherto contributed very little to the European markets.

The pastoral capabilities of Wellington have of late been very considerably increased, by the purchase of the Ahuriri district, on the eastern coast of the north island, and also of some other less extensive territories. This increased accommodation, for their growing flocks, will he of great benefit to the stockowners of Wellington, who had, for some time past, felt the want of additional pastures; during which time the native population have steadily refused to permit any purchase or occupation of their territories, beyond the boundaries originally made over to the English Government.

For a minute description of the appearance of the town, and colony of Wellington, I must refer the reader to Mr. E. J. Wakefield's Handbook to New Zealand, written in 1848. The

WELLINGTON.

following brief description and particulars are compiled from more recent authorities.

The town is situated in the beautiful landlocked harbour of Port Nicholson, on the southern extremity of the north island. The country immediately around is hilly and thickly timbered, but there is exceedingly fertile land in the valley of the Hutt, at the northern extremity of the harbour. The formation of some excellent roads has recently opened up many good agricultural sections, within moderate distance of the town, and has brought it into easier communication with extensive plains, and downs of fine grassy land, such as the Wairarapa, and the Waikanai districts, capable of carrying large quantities of sheep and cattle. Its fine harbour, and central position, have made it the outlet for shipment of produce, from a large extent of country, and from the shore-whale fishery, &c., as well as the depot for goods in return: and, as it is situated almost directly in the track of vessels homeward bound from the Australian colonies, ships requiring repairs, provisions, &c. frequently put into the port. Wellington has thus become a place of much commercial importance, its trade being nearly, if not quite, equal to that of Auckland. The town is very

DESCRIPTION OF THE TOWN.

picturesquely situated on two level spaces, on the west and south sides of Lambton harbour. It has a Government house, Church, Chapel for Wesleyans, and Roman Catholics, Hospital, Custom House, Exchange, Bank, &c.; besides many well-built houses and stores, good hotels, a wharf, and jetties for landing goods. It supports two newspapers, which notice the races, masonic clubs, theatrical and other entertainments, the Horticultural Society, and all matters of daily, colonial, and European interest. The neighbouring settlements are the Manamatu, and Wanganui, or Petre, between Wellington and New Plymouth. The European population of the district may be estimated at about 8000.

The pastoral occupations of New Zealand, to which Wellington largely contributes, are described in another chapter; 12 and, although the undulating hills at the back of the town of Wellington afford some of the most beautiful wood-scenery in New Zealand, a detailed description of the country, in the immediate neighbourhood of the harbour, would be of little advantage to the reader.

The purely agricultural colonist will probably find it more to his advantage to select, for his

WELLINGTON.

operations as a tiller of the soil alone, some district, with more level and unincumbered country, than can now be cheaply purchased near the town of Wellington, rather than to invest his labour or capital in clearing the thick forests, or cultivating the undulating lands, which add much to the beauty, but greatly interfere with the rapid agricultural development of this settlement.

The latest accounts from Wellington shew, that the colonists suffer almost as much from a want of labour, as in any of the other settlements. The Provincial Council have, however, taken measures to introduce labourers, which, it is hoped, may in some degree reduce the great expense now attending the tillage of land. A detailed account of which, will be found in Chapter XIII.

The price of provisions, also, has of late been much higher than for some years past. The same causes, referred to in the preceding account of Auckland, having, in some degree, affected the town of Wellington, which, from its constant facilities in exporting surplus goods, can always maintain the prices of its supplies for export at a rate nearly as high as any of the New Zealand or Australian ports. The

INCREASE IN PRICE OF PROVISIONS.

following are recent retail prices at Wellington, as given by the local newspapers.

"Wellington Markets. – Retail Prices, Nov. 18, 1854. – First flour, 30l. per ton; bread, per 2 lb. loaf, 8d.; beef, 7d. to 9d. per lb.; pork, 8d. to 9d. per lb.; fowls, per pair, 4s. 6d.; ducks, per pair, 6s.; geese, 7s. each; turkey, 8s. each; fresh butter, 1s 6d. per lb.; salt butter, 2s. per lb.; potatoes, 23l. per ton: eggs, 2s. per dozen; cheese, New Zealand, 1s. 4d. per lb.; Bathurst, 1s. per lb.; maize, 12s. per bushel; ale, 2s. 4d. per gallon; ham and bacon, 1s. to 1s. 2d. per lb.; firewood, per load, 1l."

Persons interested in the fluctuations of colonial markets will not think the two lists of market prices, five months later than the above, which are here given for the sake of comparison, superfluous.

"Wellington Markets, March 17, 1855. – Retail Prices Current. – First flour, 40s. to 45s. per 100 lbs.; bread, 9d. per 2 lb. loaf; beef, 7d. to 8d. per lb.; mutton, 7d. to 9d. per lb.; pork, 6d to 8d per lb.; fowls, 5s to 6s per pair; ducks, 6s. to 7s. per pair; geese, 5s. to 6s. each; turkeys, 7s. to 9s. each; fresh butter, 1s. 8d. per lb.; salt ditto, 1s. 4d. per lb.; potatoes, 7s. per cwt.; eggs 2s. 6d. per dozen; cheese, 1s. 6d. per lb.; maize,

WELLINGTON.

10s. per bushel; bran, 3s. per bushel; raw sugar 4d. to 6d. per lb.; loaf sugar, 1d. to 8d. per lb.; ale, 4s. per two gallons ; ham and bacon, 1s. to 1s. 2d. per lb.; firewood, 40s. to 45s. per cord; onions, 6d. per lb.

"Wellington Markets. – Retail Prices, April 25th, 1855. – First flour, 53l. per ton; bread, per 2 lb. loaf, 10d.; beef, 7d. to 9d. per lb.; mutton, 7d. to 9d. per lb.; pork, 8d. to 9d. per lb.; fowls, per pair, 4s. 6d.; ducks, per pair, 6s.; geese, 7s. each ; turkeys, 8s. each; fresh butter, 1s. 4d.; salt butter, 2s. per lb.; potatoes, 12l. per ton; eggs, 3s. per doz.; cheese, New Zealand, 1s. 4d. per lb.; Bathurst, 1s. per lb.; maize, 12s. per bushel; ale, 2s. 4d. per gallon; ham and bacon, 1s. to 1s. 2d. per lb.; firewood, per load, 1l."

The following letter, written in the colony during the last winter, describes the prospects of an agriculturist in Wellington, eight months ago.

"Wellington, Aug. 28, 1854.

"Dear – – – – – -,

"I have not forgotten the wish expressed by you, before I left England, that I should give you my unprejudiced opinion of New Zealand; and this province, Wellington, in particular. First, then, if I am not prejudiced, I am the exception. I will, therefore, make

AGRICULTURAL PROSPECTS.

no comment as to my likes or dislikes, but, (having now been here for rather more than six months, three autumn and three winter,) I will give you the result of my experience, my travels, and my speculations.

"You will remember I told you my first impression of the town was disappointment; the streets dirty and unfinished, the houses small, charges high, and attendance bad, and by some of my fellow-passengers the place was condemned wholesale. Six months has witnessed considerable alterations in the place, and, in my opinion. The main street has been entirely re-made, (by the assistance of the military), and other improvements are going on. The climate is good, the situation beautiful, and the town, if it is not so, might be so. The winds are disagreeable, though considered very healthy, so we must not quarrel with them; in short, the place is doing well, and will do better the moment we can get more labour, and there is every inducement for labour to come out.

"Almost everything here is exactly the reverse of home – land cheap, the produce of land dear, labour very dear, and yet it pays very well to employ it. Land at 10s per acre yielding more and with less labour than land at £60. in England, with a certain market at from 200 to 400 per cent, higher price for the produce than with yours. A steady climate, no severe winters, and undoubtedly healthy, – what can you want more? Now, to tell you the truth, those who come here find the greatest difficulty in getting settled; that is, if they go into the country; the want of roads, want of labour, of houses, doctors, schools, – in short of nearly everything, is very trying. Yet those who try succeed. I

WELLINGTON.

think I told you my first impression of the country was disappointment, so different from the prairies of America, so like the most poverty-stricken districts of England, that I was getting absolutely disheartened until I came across my friend's farm, when I at once saw that land covered with fern, rushes, stunted bushes, and rubbish of all kinds, only required breaking up and well exposing to wind and sun to grow anything and everything. Now this farm produced last year 11 acres of wheat, which paid the fee simple of the farm, 300 acres, and the house; and if he had had sufficient labour to have produced 50 acres of potatoes (which grow uncommonly fine) he might have realized a perfect fortune.

"And now for my spec; but I will tell you what first led to it. Why, I was so pleased with my friend's place that I determined to have a 'go in at it,' so on my return to Wellington, I went to the land office, marked out the two sections (out of about 40,000 acres) I wanted, and pulled out my cheque book to pay, but the land office does not take cheques, and it being Saturday, and too late to get money from the bank, I said I would call and pay on Monday. Now it happened, on the Sunday a ship came in, and I was occupied some time. When I did go down again to complete the purchase, not only were my 200 acres gone, but the whole 40,000, and vexed enough I was. If I now buy the same place, I must pay double the price. However, as I could not get a farm, I was at least determined to have a 'go in' at farming produce. So I bought five tons of potatoes at £9 per ton. A day or two after, I could have realized what an English farmer would have boasted over no little, but that would not do. I therefore bundled them

COLONIAL OCCUPATIONS.

off to Sydney, and in three months bagged £17. clear of all expenses. Now, if I had my farm (good open land fit for the plough) and I could really get labour that I could depend upon (which is now nearly impossible) I would make an effort to follow it out; in short, it will depend in a great measure upon the manner in which our new system of immigration will act. It is a self-evident fact there is a great opening here, and even supposing the prices come down, which they will not as long as there is gold to be found, there are plenty of paying occupations to turn to; curing bacon, salt meats of all kinds, butter, cheese, flax, and hemp will always be produced cheaper here than in Australia; in short, all the fruits of the earth will. There is now a weekly communication with Australia, freight being about £2. 10s. per ton, which of course would fall with the present prices.

"I will now tell you what kind of people will succeed out here, that is, if they will succeed anywhere. Labourers of all kinds, skilled or otherwise, younger sons of gentlemen and farmers with from £500. to £2000. a-piece; merchants, lawyers, shopkeepers, idlers, and drunkards wont be wanted for twenty years to come, as consumers, they certainly are useful, but how every third man you meet manages to live out of the pocket of his neighbour is a problem I am not yet able to solve. Out of this class you will have numbers returning to England, and they will bring back "lying reports about the land."

The following description of Wanganui or Petre, a district about sixty miles north-west

WELLINGTON.

of Wellington, is taken from the journal of a tour from New Plymouth to Wanganui, made in 1854, by Dr. Wilson, formerly a settler and landowner at Wanganui.

"I have been sojourning here as the guest of my old friend, Captain Campbell, for these last seven days, and have during that time had ample opportunity of seeing the country, and of making myself more intimately acquainted than heretofore with a property which I have adjoining to his estate. For, during the seven years I resided at Wanganui – viz., from the commencement of 1841 till the close of 1847, I looked on it, from circumstances of difference, then in constant mooting betwixt the Aborigines and the New Zealand Company, as uncertain property; and ultimately I exchanged it for land at Taranaki. But recently, by an act of retributive justice, it has been restored to me by the Company as compensation for past sacrifices. So that now, holding it under the aegis of the Government, I feel the assurance that it is indeed mine; and, on the other hand, I have so perfect a confidence in the integrity of the Maori, as with like firmness to believe that no temptation will induce him to impugn my right. "It has far more than regained the condition

WANGANUI.

of its former most promising days; for of those settlers who left it, when to their eyes it assumed, as they augured, the appearance of utter hopelessness, almost all have returned, or have expressed the intention of so doing. And now, several land purchasing, as well as other beneficial settlers, are adding at least monthly to the aggregate of its population. And the recent addition of the adjoining Torakino and Rangitiki districts gives assurance, to thousands who may come for land, that none need to go away unprovided or disappointed; these blocks conjointly forming an aggregate verging on eight hundred thousand acres. And there are millions more behind these.

"Considering the facility of breaking in land here, and the comparatively little expense it is done at by those who employ cattle and implements of their own – the clearing and burning off for the entry of the plough varying from ten to twenty shillings per acre – we may now look forward with pretty certain expectation, that annually, henceforth, cultivation and stock will extend and grow in manifold progression.

"Among the absurd and injurious reports that have been occasionally, and busily circulated respecting this settlement, there are two only

WELLINGTON.

which particularly require notice and refutation, these are –

1st. That there is deficiency of timber.

2nd. That its bounding grass and fern lands are of inferior quality, and comparatively unproductive.

"He must have been very short-sighted, or, more likely, very indisposed to deal in matter of fact, who invented and gave currency to these postulates, since nothing can be more at variance with truth. For from any elevation may be seen illimitable forests spreading from within to far beyond the present boundaries of the settlement; and from various parts of it timber in any quantity is made available for commerce by the rafting facilities which the noble river affords. And there is scarcely a glen or valley intersecting the fine champagnes which is not more or less clothed, on one side or other, with woods of majestic growth.

"As regards the next assertion, I would observe that flax, timber and coarse grass lands are, I believe, about on a par in the scale of fertility; but they are so, not from original physical composition, but simply because the super soil, in general, holds a large percentage of decayed organic matter. Every farmer knows that mould

BUSH LAND AS COMPARED WITH FERN.

is an adventitious and a very fleeting component of any cultivated soil; in the same manner that farm-yard or stable manures are. When we examine into the statement, that fern covered land is inherently inferior in quality to that of the bush, flax, and grass, we find that facts do not support it. For example, we have now, everywhere, fern occupying tracts of land where trees in forest density must have flourished within the memory of the present generation. Hence we may deduce that the entire country was so at one time, and that a fern or a timber forest coat is merely a contingency, and, in the case before us, not indicative of quality of soil at all.

"Almost all the crops of this season have been taken from what is called fern land, and the products, I apprehend, will be found equal to those reaped from any other denomination of land within the settlement. But to look elsewhere, I know that when I left New Plymouth district, a fortnight since, the bush land crops of wheat were deemed inferior, generally, to those of the open fern lands; and I may add, that, for a succession of years, the farmer of bush land there had not obtained more per acre than those who were differently circumstanced.

WELLINGTON.

The consequence of this experience is, that agriculturists are opening, or rather I should say, have opened their eyes from the delusion that bush land is El Dorado; and the once comparatively neglected fern sort is now in urgent demand, and eagerly purchased too, at most extraordinary high prices. I may further state, in illustration of this preference for fern land at New Plymouth, that, though the Government offers thousands of acres of unselected bush land, scrip holders, in many instances, prefer waiting for the chance of getting open untimbered land at an uncertain coming day, to being so provided. "It is manifest, that bush land could not be quarried clear of stumps, and of over spreading roots while in the green, or fresh state, so as to be rendered ploughable, without the incurrence of an outlay greatly exceeding what the land is worth; or, in ninety-nine cases in the hundred, what the settler's purse is equal to. And it must not be overlooked, that even after the sacrifice of eight, ten, or more years, from the primary expense period of felling, lopping, and branch burning, it requires in the aggregate, eight, ten, or more pounds sterling per acre, to fit it for any culture other than that accomplished by costly manual labour.

COLONIAL PRODUCE.

While on the other hand, flax, fern, and coarse grass land, which in this settlement abounds, is open on the first year of clearing and breaking soil to the workings of the plough, the grubber, the harrow, the roller, and the seed drill; also to the scythe, and the more modern invention, the reaping machine. And the farmer, instead of having to carry his sheaves in his arms, or on his back over and through the intricacies and difficulties offered by stumps, logs, and root ramifications, loads his bullock cart with his crop in open field, and very conveniently drives it to his stack yard."

Another writer, dating his letter, Wanganui, June, 1854, says: – " The price of land is rapidly rising, particularly the swamps which have been drained, some of which give extraordinary crops, ninety bushels of oats per acre; splendid potatoes, twenty tons per acre. What would your English farmers say to that? and then no rent, rates, taxes, or tithes, &c to pay, Add to this, the high price we get for our produce; wheat, 12s. per bushel; potatoes, £34. per ton; oats, 6s. per bushel, &c. I mentioned to you some time ago, that – – – and – – – had purchased three suburban sections for £75. To shew how land is increasing in value, my son has lately

WELLINGTON.

bought three of the same, for which he was obliged to pay £200."

Some information respecting the regulations for the sale of land, and the assisted immigration of labouring persons to Wellington, will be found in subsequent chapters. A brief notice of Ahuriri and Manawatu, both of them districts recently acquired by the Province, may in this place, be interesting to the reader.

LAND SALE AT AHURIRI: – The first sale of town and suburban land at Ahuriri (a district situated on the east coast of the north island) took place on the 5th of May, 1855. The town allotments were situated on Scinde Island and Meanee Spit. The sections on the Spit were in greatest demand, and prices ranged from 25l. to 35l. each for front allotments, and from 10l. to 17l- for those in the rear. The Scinde Island allotments went from the upset price up to 30l. each, according to position, and exclusive of improvements, &c, all the improved lots being purchased at the upset price by the parties owning the improvements. There has also been a selection of forty acre sections, which took place in Masterton. Most of the sections consist of about one half bush, and the other cleared land ready for the plough. Numerous small rivulets

LAND SALE AT AHURIRI.

flowing into larger ones intersect and irrigate the block. The land at a distance, resembles a champagne country dotted over, or rather ornamented, with clumps of bush. Sixty-three allotments were taken, making a total of 2520 acres; four acres were reserved for a cemetery.

The very limited extent of land offered for sale on this occasion, and the large amount of scrip held by parties in the district, and by those who had come principally to attend the sale, were among the causes of the high prices realized.

The payments were made almost entirely in scrip, cash being paid only where necessary to make up even sums. A few very inferior lots failed to find bidders, but of these, two or three were subsequently taken at the upset price.

It is worthy of remark, that amongst the purchasers, were two of the principal native chiefs of the district, who became owners of three or four allotments through the agency of one of the Native Commissioners.

A local newspaper of the date, March 21st, 1855, describes the Ahuriri district in the following words: –

"This highly favoured district bids fair to become the Goshen of the northern island. Each

WELLINGTON.

vessel that enters the harbour from Wellington or Auckland brings intending purchasers of land, or applicants for sheep runs. Some of the best land is still in the hands of the natives, who are not disposed to sell, and the settlers, both actual and prospective, are sighing for a visit from that justly popular functionary, Mr. Commissioner McLean. The measles have passed gradually down the east coast from Auckland to Wellington. The epidemic was brought to Turanga in May, by a vessel from Auckland. It spread successively thence to Te Wairoa, Mohaka, Ahuriri, &c., by means of a great meeting of natives at Te Wairoa on the occasion of a grand 'tangihanga' for Apatri, an old chief drowned last year. Several fatal cases have occurred in almost every pa 13 along the east coast. The most important death here is that of Karanema, the eldest son of the principal chief, Te Hapuhu. The disease has been most fatal amongst the aged. At Turanga, the natives are kindly attended to by the Venerable Archdeacon Williams, and Mr. Harris; at Te Wairoa, by the Rev. Mr. Hamlin; and at Ahuriri, by Dr. English; they express a strong desire to be vaccinated as a safeguard against

AHURIRI.

the much dreaded small-pox. It is to be hoped that considerations of humanity, and of sound policy will induce a wise government to enable them promptly to accomplish their wish. In consequence of the great illness, the whalers at the several fisheries at the head of Hawke's Bay, have been unable to man their boats fully this season, and a considerable decrease in the quantity of black oil may be anticipated. The difficulty of getting pulling hands has been further increased by the anxiety of the natives to cultivate wheat, of which much more than usual has been sown this year. At Poverty Bay, Te Wairoa, Mohaka, &c., where the British law has as yet no representative, the characteristic independence of the Maori is apt to become a little overbearing and offensive to the Pakeha; 14 but at Ahuriri, the natives are intelligent, industrious and peaceable, evincing the best possible feeling towards the new order of things. Several serious quarrels between chiefs of different tribes, which would have involved their respective adherents in a war of extermination a few years ago, have been amicably settled before the Court of the Resident Magistrate, Mr. Domett, to whose tact, temper, and

WELLINGTON.

practical good sense, this satisfactory state of things may be mainly attributed."

Manawatu is a district situated on the west coast of the north island, about midway between Wellington and Wanganui. The following brief notice of the district was published in April, 1855.

STATISTICS OF MANAWATU, APRIL 11th, 1855: – "Manawatu is, we believe, considered by all who have seen it, and have had an opportunity of comparing it with others, the most fertile and most promising district in the province. It is to be regretted on this account, as well as for other reasons, that the efforts made to extinguish the native title in this district have been hitherto unsuccessful. The following statistics of its European population, &c., are interesting, and may, we understand, be depended upon in all essential particulars.

"Manawatu contains a population of 78 Europeans, of whom 48 are males, and 30 females; 17 of them are under 7; 16 between 17 and

15; 4 between 15 and 21; and 41 above 21; 48 can read and write; 14 can read only, and

16 cannot read.

"There are in this district, in the occupation of Europeans, 284 3/4 acres fenced and under cul-

INCREASE OF REVENUE.

tivation; 12 of which are cropped with wheat; 31 1/2 with barley; 33 with oats; 1 1/2 with maize; 17 1/2 with potatoes; 133 1/2 with grass; and there are 8 acres consisting of gardens and orchards. The European population possesses 22 horses, 572 cattle, 184 sheep, 5 goats, and 345 pigs."

REVENUE OF THE PROVINCE, 1854. I have not been able to procure any recent returns of the Revenue of Wellington. Prom an abstract of the receipt and expenditure of the Province for the quarter ending the 31st March, 1854, it appears, that the revenue for that period, exclusive of loans on debentures, and advances on account of loans refunded, amounted to £9404. 18s. 10d. exclusive of the balance in the hands of the treasurer at the commencement of the quarter. The civil expenditure for the quarter, amounted to £2827. 16s. 10d.; and on public works and undertakings, including advances on account of roads, to £282. 14s. 5d. The total receipts, including balance in the hands of the treasurer at the commencement of the quarter, amounted to £12,212. 8s. 10d.; the total expenditure, to £5,825. 14s. 5d., leaving a balance in the hands of the treasurer, of £6,386. 18s. 5d. The total number of acres sold by the Commissioners of Crown lands at Wellington, for the quarter

WELLINGTON.

ending the 30th of June, 1854, amounted to 26,445 1/2 acres; and for the quarter, ending the 30th of September, to 8,612 1/3 acres. The balance in the hands of the Commissioner, at the end of the latter quarter, amounted to £13,441. 8s. 3d., of which £2,144. 10s. consisted of deposits not available, leaving an available balance of £10,596. 18s. 3d. By a Provincial Gazette for November, 1854, a large number of sections of land in the Oharius, Tukapu, Horikiwi, Pahantanui, Harbour, and Pakuratahi districts, were declared open for sale under the regulations of the 4th of March, at the fixed price of 10s. an acre.

A recent number of the New Zealander, an Auckland newspaper, in comparing the returns of the revenue and expenditure of the northern province (Auckland) with those of Wellington, for the half year, ending March 31st, 1854, observes: – "The recent publication of the returns of Wellington naturally suggests a general comparison of the prospects of the two provinces as shewn by these printed statements. In both there is a progressive increase of revenue, an evidence of growing prosperity. In both provinces, the year's income will greatly exceed the amount estimated. In the returns

REVENUE FROM LAND SALES.

for Wellington, any sums received from sales of land do not appear as an item to the credit of the province, but it must be remembered that Sir George Grey's last efforts before leaving Wellington, were wholly occupied in securing for the province large tracts of available land; and several millions of acres were purchased by him from the natives, the purchase-money of which must be provided from the money arising from the sales of land. In subsequent returns of this province, the receipts from land sales will form an important item, and must in fairness be attributed to the exertions made by Sir George to promote the prosperity of the province. In the northern province, no extensive purchases of land have yet been made, so that this will be a future item of expense to be calculated on.

"The returns from the other provinces are of a similar character. All that have been received, show a marked and progressive increase.

"This uniform result from every province, after making every reasonable allowance for the natural effect of the gold discoveries on the trade of New Zealand, may be considered in a great measure as due to the policy of Sir George Grey, in his administration of the go-

WELLINGTON.

vernment of the colony, 'the keystone of the prosperity of New Zealand.' He has but just quitted the country, for the prosperity of which during the last eight years he has so earnestly laboured. One item in particular which appears of prominent importance in the returns of nearly every province, the proportion received from sales of land, is entirely owing to his land regulations.

"His general policy is still acted upon. The Executive of each province have only recently been installed in office, as yet they have done nothing, consequently the change that has been made in the government cannot in any way be considered to have contributed to this general and increasing prosperity; for it has been too recent to produce any appreciable result. The total revenue of the southern provinces for 1845, the last year of Captain Fitzroy's government, was £6341, less by £1400 than the amount of the last quarter's customs for this province; while the duties collected during the last nine months at Wanganui, which Captain Fitzroy declared would never be a settlement for the next twenty years, amount to £1455."

The islands of New Zealand have occasionally been visited by earthquakes. These are, however,

EARTHQUAKES.

not often very severe, and are more so in the north island, and especially in the neighbourhood of Wellington than in other portions of the colony. In the year 1848, an earthquake was perceptible in the whole of the north island, and in Wellington several buildings composed partially of brick were destroyed. Several less severe shocks have been felt since that time, but none have been the cause of the slightest damage to the colonists, who of late had begun to erect buildings of brick and stone, in preference to less durable materials; the wooden houses, though exceedingly picturesque in their appearance, being more costly to keep in repair than those composed of brick or stucco. However, on the 23rd of last January (1855), a severe shock was again felt at Wellington, and also, in a slighter degree, in other parts of New Zealand.

None of the settlements, excepting Wellington, appear to have suffered any damage from this earthquake; of which the following notice is copied from the Times of the 26th May, 1855: –

"Private letters, via Sydney from Wellington, New Zealand, to the date of February 12th, give ample details of the earthquake on the evening of the 23rd of January, which seems to have visited the whole

WELLINGTON.

country, although to a less serious extent than at Wellington. At that settlement much damage was done; the first shock occurred at 9 p.m., on the 23rd, without any previous warning, and more or less injured every brick or stone building in the town, hardly leaving a single chimney standing in the whole place. The branch of the Union Bank of Australia, the gaol, and the Government house, being the most substantial buildings, suffered the most; while the lighter constructions of wood were generally uninjured. Although the alarm and destruction of property were great, only one life was lost. The shocks continued at intervals for several days, but none were so severe as the first. In the valley of the Hutt, near Wellington, much injury was sustained, the bridge being destroyed, and the road rendered impassable. The inhabitants of Wellington were already taking measures to repair the damage, and they speak in high praise of the conduct of the military, in helping to clear away the rubbish from the streets. It is presumed that no attempt will be made in future to build houses otherwise than of wood, and of one story high, as these alone appeared to sustain the shock. The earthquake is stated to have been quite as severe as that of 1848, although it has not created quite so much alarm and disturbance in the general affairs of the colony.'

The following extract from a letter, published in the Times of June 18th, 1855, contains a full account of the earthquake, as experienced by a settler in the Hutt valley, about 50 miles distance from Wellington: –

EARTHQUAKES.

"New Zealand, March 5th, 1855.

"In case my wife's letter, giving an account of the earthquakes, should not reach you, I intend to let you know something about them. I cannot learn that more violent ones have been experienced in any part of the world during this century, and, had this part of the island been densely populated, and the houses built as those in Europe are, the loss of life would have been fearful. On Tuesday, the 23rd of January last, I had engaged to visit a neighbour 14 miles off; but the electric appearance of the air and very lowering clouds made me anticipate bad weather, which might have detained me from home, and so I refused to go, providentially as it would appear, for the large brick chimney of my friend's only sitting room fell into it, and no one in the room could have escaped. We were sitting round our table with a friend, when, at half-past nine o'clock at night, without the rumbling notice which earthquakes generally give us, the shock commenced; the house waved to and fro, rocked, and jumped, as you might fancy a ship would when she strikes on a rock; the lights were dashed off the table, books, glass, china &c., on the shelves round the room, came down, together with the chimney, part of which fell inside and mixed with the ruins of the furniture, &c. Our friend jumped out of the window, and clung to a post outside, but was thrown down there, and obliged to lie on the ground. I rushed to open the door, for fear we should all be jammed in, with no means of taking the family out of the house, but it was some time before I could open it, and then only by watching the waving of the house; and when the door was opened, and I let go my

WELLINGTON.

hold of it, I was thrown down, and could not rise on my legs till the shock was over, which lasted about three minutes, although trying my utmost to get up, for the purpose of bringing out the family. No house, but one built with posts let into the ground, and wooden houses put together like a box, as the houses in this country are built, could have outlived such a rattling. Ours, though somewhat out of the perpendicular, is not down; the roof, however, is entirely dislodged, and must be put on again before winter. With wages at 8s. a-day, I hardly know how we shall accomplish this and get bedding and other stores; for, in addition to the earthquake, we had a fire a day or two after, which burnt down the tent in which we were obliged to live, and everything in it. Every one in this valley (of the Hutt) lived in tents for some weeks, as the shocks have continued up to the present time; but none have been so severe as the first. This part, for many square miles, is rent in every direction; cracks in the ground of many feet in length, and from a few inches to several feet deep, exist over very large spaces, at short intervals from each other; our horse track to the river, which is about half a mile off, has more than twenty such across it, twelve of which opened and shut with violence during the shock, and threw water to a considerable height over the surrounding bushes. I saw the water, cracks, sand, and mud, which were thrown up, the morning after, and glad I was that no fissure had opened nearer to our house than 200 yards, or it must have come down on us. Fissures opened in two native 'warries' to my knowledge, and nearly smothered the inmates with water, besides

EARTHQUAKES.

bringing their light buildings down on them. Five natives, however, were killed in one house in this valley, and one man only in Wellington, 54 miles off. There – since the last severe shocks, six years ago – they have built what they imagined to be earthquake-proof wooden houses, and, though some of them are much damaged and much property destroyed, only one or two are down. All the brick and mortar ones, however, and all the chimneys are down, although they do not appear to have felt the shocks so much as we did. Wellington has, however, been raised by the first shock two feet in perpendicular height, and some inches since by the slight subsequent ones. We suppose that we also are raised up, judging by the sea coast; where the former low-water mark was it is now high-water mark."

The Australian and New Zealand Gazette for June 9th, 1855, contains the following passage in reference to the above-mentioned earthquake.

"From the account of a public meeting held at Wellington to consider the late earthquake, it can be seen that the colonists are alive to the dangers through which they have passed, and to the many instances of sympathy and good feeling to which the event has given rise. We look in vain for evidences of that state of panic which might be expected after an earthquake; and trust that no injury to the prosperity of the colony will ensue from such a cause."

12 Note, see Chapter IX.

13 "Pa" a native village.

14 "Pakeha," White Man.

CHAPTER V. NELSON.

CHAPTER V.

NELSON.

THE town of Nelson lies at the bottom of Blind Bay, on the north-west corner of the Middle Island, or on the opposite side of Cook's Strait, and to the westward of Wellington. It has a good anchorage and harbour, and has some fine land surrounding the town. The settlement includes a neighbouring district called the Wairau, having much good agricultural land, and excellent sheep and cattle runs. Hitherto Nelson has produced by far the greater portion of the wool exported from New Zealand, but it is probable that during the present year, 1855, the exports of wool from Wellington, and also from the vast grazing districts around Canterbury, will equal if not surpass those of Nelson. An uninterrupted series of sheep and cattle grazing stations has, for some time, occupied the whole available country between Nelson and Canterbury.

The following notice of a supposed new tract of grazing country, near Nelson, was published in the Nelson Examiner, of March, 1855: –

DESCRIPTION OF NELSON.

"A highly important communication has been made to His Honour the Superintendent, within the last few days, by two natives. They state that a very large tract of rich country, hitherto unknown to Europeans, exists in the centre of the Middle Island, and may be reached either from Nelson or Canterbury on horseback. Improbable as this story at first appeared, there are several circumstances which give it the appearance of truth. The natives appear to be acting in perfect good faith, and for a very moderate consideration have undertaken to point out the country; and an arrangement has been made by which they are to start on their journey in April, accompanied by Mr. Travers, who goes on the part of the Government to report upon the district."

I am also indebted to the same source for the following description of the settlement, written at the commencement of the present year: –

"The settlement of Nelson may be considered as extending along the southern shores of Cook's Strait, including Blind Bay and Cloudy Bay, with the exception of the mountain tracts separating the two. A portion of Massacre Bay is also attached to Nelson. The chief

NELSON.

town, and original settlement, is at the southern extremity of Blind Bay.

"Massacre Bay, situated at the entrance of Cook's Strait, is the most westward of the three bays; it is distant about 50 miles from Nelson by sea, and it is with much difficulty reached by land. Of the 45,000 acres of adjoining comparatively level land, not more than 25,000, partly inundated, are fit for agricultural purposes, and of that not more than half could be cultivated successfully. It is without a harbour of any consequence. Coal and lime are procurable in some abundance. Plumbago of good quality exists, and great quantities of the finest timber are available.

"Blind Bay contains comparatively little agricultural land, and that not in immediate connection with the harbour. Of the 60,000 or 70,000 acres, less than one half is suited to agricultural purposes; and that is generally situated in detached strips, between spurs of mountain ranges, and exposed to floods and high winds.

"Cloudy Bay is situated at the eastern entrance of Cook's Strait. The adjacent land, including the Wakefield Downs, consists of about 200,000 acres, one half of which only is

CLOUDY BAY.

fit for agriculture. The Wairau plains, included in the above, consist of about 60,000 acres, extending from the Bay, southward, to the distance of about 70 miles, with an average width of eight or ten miles for the first eleven miles, and of two or three for the remainder, with a gentle slope towards the sea of twenty feet to the mile.

"Four or five miles of the district, adjoining the coast, are swampy; of the rest, eight or ten miles are covered with fine grass, which continues to within 18 or 20 miles of the end, where it is stony and well wooded. Much of this land is available for cattle and agriculture; but it is principally as a sheep farming district that the grassy slopes, extending as far as the Kaikoras, which stretch across the island in latitude 42 deg., will be valuable. The best communication between Nelson and the Wairau plains will probably be by following the river Matai, crossing the Pelorus, and entering the plains about 15 miles from the sea, making the whole journey about 30 miles. 15 The

NELSON.

natives, in anticipation of the purchase of the intervening land, have allowed the new road to be constructed."

Intelligence has lately (September, 1855) been received, that Mr. Weld has succeeded in discovering a perfectly practicable route to Canterbury, by way of the Wairau Gorge. This will shorten the distance between Nelson and Christchurch by nearly 150 miles, and avoid the worst portions of the present road.

"The harbour of Nelson is on the southeastern coast of Blind Bay. A series of high bluff lands, about 150 feet in height, run along the eastern side of Blind Bay, until within ten or twelve miles of its southern extremity, when the coast recedes and is less elevated. From this point a bank of boulder stones continues, running southward, parallel to the high land and half a mile in its rear, until within a few hundred yards of the shore. The space enclosed between this boulder bank and the receded coast forms the harbour; at its north end is a flax swamp of about two miles, containing 200 acres of land, on a substratum of roots and decayed timber; below this is a mud flat, extending for five miles, which is covered at high water; and the remaining mile and a half is the

THE HARBOUR.

harbour. A vessel entering should keep well down, until it arrives at the end of the boulder bank, when it should take a course of E.N.E., sailing between the extremity of the bank and the Channel Rocks, where the passage is about 400 yards wide. Vessels should enter on the flood tide, and leave it at or just before high water. The harbour is capable of holding vessels of 500 to 600 tons, or drawing under 17 feet of water. It has excellent holding ground, abundant water, and shelter. The depth of water in the channel of the entrance is from 15 feet to 18 feet; and on the bar, two miles out-side, 22 feet at the springs, high water, and 9 feet low water.

Dec.

Min.

Sec.

The longitude of the magazine is

173

16

5 E.

The latitude

41

15

30 S.

The variation of the compass

15

5

0 E.

"Port Underwood has been under consideration, as likely to afford a harbour, from which the produce of the Wairau Plains might be exported, but as it consists only of a succession of coves, insufficiently sheltered, and too dis-

NELSON.

tant from a port town, its other natural advantages would be of no avail; it is, moreover, ten miles distant from the mouth of the Wairau river.

"Queen Charlotte's Sound is admirably situated, being placed at right angles to the winds which prevail in the Strait. It is 25 miles in length and nine miles wide at the entrance, being a collection of the finest harbours in the world. The tides are regular, no hidden dangers are within, the soundings gradually deepen from 7 to 36 fathoms mid-channel, and the shores are bold and well wooded. The only caution required in its navigation is, that the set of the flood tide is to the northern, of the ebb to the southern, head of the mouth. There is sufficient land, amid the most enchanting scenery in the vicinity, for a port town. The communication between it and the Wairau by land, is all but impracticable; as also with Port Underwood.

"The Wairau river has a bar at its mouth, and it is only with a north-westerly wind that even small vessels can pass it, and proceed to sea.

"The climate of Nelson appears to be acknowledged as the finest in New Zealand. It is scarcely possible to say anything more decided

THE CLIMATE.

in its favour; wind, rain, and heat, appear to be so equally apportioned, that the transitions of the seasons are scarcely perceptible. The indigenous vegetation is evergreen. Plants which are carefully treasured up in the more genial temperature of a window, with a southern aspect, in England, during the winter months, not only live but blossom during the same period at Nelson, in the open air.

The extreme heat of the hottest day is 89 deg.
The mean average heat of the hottest month. . 70 deg.
The extreme cold of the coldest day. . 29 deg.
The mean average cold of the coldest month. . 50 deg.

The average number of fine sunny days is 229, of fair and cloudy 46, of showery 66, of continuous rain 23. The average annual fall of rain is 34.59 inches, and the average number of frosty mornings 55.

N.E. and S.W. are the prevalent fine weather winds, during the greater part of the year. In summer, the N.E. or sea breeze is fresh; in autumn, the S.W. or land breeze is more prevalent; in spring, the S. and S.E. The N.W. and westerly are the most rainy winds.

NELSON.

"The price of farms fluctuates so greatly, and so constantly, that much dependence cannot be placed upon any statements on the subject. Near the town, land, unfenced and uncultivated, averages from £4. to £12. an acre, and that which is more remote, from 50s. to £5. an acre, and even more, according to its nature. The rich alluvial spots are but few, the general run of agricultural land being proof against any thing but high farming.

"The intercommunication among districts hemmed in by steep and rugged mountains will be, for many years at least, difficult, uncertain, and expensive. The late grant by the Provincial Council, of £1500 for roads in the Blind Bay district, and a similar sum for the Waimeea and Wairau districts, will do much to facilitate this intercourse; and a further sum of £2000. for steam communication, will add much to the value of distant stations on the coast.

"Labour is high, and to he obtained with difficulty: £30. to £50. is given, with board and lodging, for a single individual. Provisions are dear, as the following specimens will evidence: bread 14d. the 4 lb. loaf; meat 9d. the lb.; butter 16d. the lb.; wheat 9s. to 10s. the bushel; oats

MARKET PRICES.

8s. to 9s.; firewood 30s. the cord. All this is good for the producer, but rather puzzling to the consumer. The average yield of an acre of wheat is from 25 to 30 bushels. Any spare cash may be invested at 10 per cent, on good local security, or in sheep, which would give a handsome return."

Two quotations of recent market prices at Nelson are given below. The first is for August, the end of winter in New Zealand, and the other for December, 1854, nearly corresponding to our midsummer.

Markets, Aug. 9, 1854. – "There was a brisk demand last week for produce for exportation, which had the effect of causing an advance in the price of several articles, but on the completion of the shipments then in progress prices gave way, and may now be quoted at about former rates, viz., wheat, 10s. to 10s. 3d. a bushel; oats, 6s. to 7s.; flour, £28. a ton; potatoes, £12."

Markets, Dec 6. – "Wheat, which is becoming scarce, is now selling at 11s. 6d. to 12s. a bushel; oats, 6s. to 7s.; flour is £32. a ton; sawn timber, 17s. 6d. to 20s. per 100 feet; green peas, 1s. 3d. per peck; new potatoes, 4d. per lb.; beef and mutton, 8d. to 9d."

NELSON.

The Nelson Examiner for the 3rd of December, 1854, contains the following remarks respecting the supply of labour to the colony: –

"Now the harvest is approaching we must consider how it is to be got in. On all hands, we hear the cry, 'How is labour to be procured?' and it is a question of vital importance to the Colony. On its solution, depends the fact of whether the settlement shall retrograde or progress. For several years past, land has been thrown out of cultivation for grain crops, and the result has been a diminished amount of corn for exportation, without any other article to supply its place. Ships have come here, and, unable to obtain cargoes, have gone away empty, thereby giving a bad impression of the settlement. And this is not the only evil. We must pay hard cash for imports, and where is this to come from? We already pay a high price for articles imported – higher than most other colonies – and why is this? First of all, because, from the paucity of our population, our consumption is proportionably small; and, secondly, from our producing powers being in like ratio. This induces vessels of lighter tonnage only to bring in what we want, and take away the little we produce. We have thousands of acres

HARVEST.

only wanting population to cause them to teem with fertility, and to raise such crops as should create a surplus for exportation, causing large vessels to come here for it, and, at the same time, to bring in tea, sugar, and other manufactured goods, which, from the large quantities required, would be brought in more economically, and, of course, would be supplied to the consumer at lower rates."

The following paragraph, written one month later than the above, gives an account of the harvest for January, 1855: –

"The continuation of fine weather has greatly hastened the harvest, which has now fairly begun in all parts of the province. A few showers of rain a fortnight ago would doubtless have been beneficial, but, on the whole, we have great cause for thankfulness at the promise afforded for an abundant harvest of every kind of grain – perhaps the best we have ever enjoyed here; and, should the present weather continue, we shall hear nothing this season of grown wheat or of damaged flour. There are now five reaping machines at work in Nelson, and although requiring a considerable amount of labour to work them, these machines will greatly hasten the work of harvest."

NELSON.

The account of the Grain Market, for March, 1855, runs thus: –

"There is a demand for wheat for the Melbourne market, and 9s. to 9s. 6d. a bushel has, we believe, been offered, but sellers are standing out for 10s., which is the highest price obtained since harvest. Oats are selling at 5s. 6d. to 5s. 9d. a bushel; barley, 6s."

The following review of the progress of the Settlement appeared in the Examiner of the 31st of March, 1855, that day being the thirteenth anniversary of the foundation of the Settlement; it is of so interesting a nature that it is here given entire: –

"In 1847, the total white population was stated to be 2807 – this year, the white population of the province (excepting the Amuri district, from which no return has been received) numbers 5801 souls, distributed as follows: – Town of Nelson, 940 males, 880 females; Suburban North, 109 males, 99 females; Suburban South, 142 males, 117 females; Waimea East, 511 males, 416 females; Waimea South, 382 males, 342 females; Waimea West, 181 males, 151 females; Motueka, 392 miles, 382 females; Massacre Bay, 72 males, 49 females; Wairau, 352 males, 185

POPULATION.

females; Queen Charlotte's Sound, 56 males, 43 females. This large addition to our number has been caused chiefly by the immigration which has taken place from the Australian colonies within the last few months, although during the same period there have been numerous arrivals likewise from England. There are at present no means of ascertaining what number of persons are residing in the Amuri district; but these, in conjunction with the arrivals which have taken place since the statistics were taken, justify us in saying that the white population of Nelson, at the present time, exceeds 6000.

"The state of education is classified as follows: – Persons who can read and write, 1950 males, 1468 females; persons who can read only, 403 males, 438 females; persons who cannot read or write, 784 males, 758 females: total, 5801.

"These tables are rather perplexing. The number of persons who can neither read nor write is stated to be 1542, which is 409 in excess of the number of children below five years of age. This would lead to the inference that all the children below five years of age were without education, as well as a large pro-

NELSON.

portion of those between the ages of five and ten. It must be remembered, however, that among an adult population like ours, who emigrated to a large extent from the rural districts of England, there must be very many who are wholly without education; and we imagine it is this class who have assisted largely to make up the total of 1542 among our population who are neither able to read nor write.

"The live stock of the province was: – Horned cattle, 10,305; sheep, 164,014; horses, 1165; mules, 9; goats 2705; pigs, 4351.

"The increase in stock during the past year is considerable. The number of horned cattle is augmented by 1622 head, sheep by 29,184, horses by 147, and swine by 647. When the statistics of the whole province are made up, the increase of stock will show much larger, as the majority of the runs in the Amuri district have been stocked from the Wairau, and these flocks, some of which are large, are not given in the above numbers. During this present year, at least 12,000 sheep have been driven over Barefell Pass, to assist in stocking the southern plains, and many of these were on their way before the statistics were taken.

"The amount of land under cultivation con-

CULTIVATION.

sists of – Wheat, 2378 acres; barley, 812; oats, 1740; maize, 4; potatoes, 459; grass, 3006; garden, 512; hops, 9; other crops, 517 – making a total of 9437 acres; and the total amount fenced in is 16,526 acres. It is to these returns that we refer with the greatest satisfaction.

"We find that there has been a large increase in the cultivation of all grain crops, particularly in wheat and oats; but, in consequence of the favourable state of the harvest we have had, the actual increase in the quantity of corn grown in the province this year is much larger than is represented by the figures. The statistics do not furnish us with any estimated average of the crops; but they are everywhere admitted to have been the best ever grown in Nelson, and we know two instances where sixty bushels of wheat (of sixty-three pounds) to the acre have been raised. In all other crops a nearly similar increase has taken place, and 3276 additional acres of land fenced, is a proof that agriculture in Nelson is not to be suffered to remain stationary.

"Let us now see what has been done, and what is doing, to advance the province of Nelson in other respects. The greatest want which

NELSON.

we have for some time experienced has been the want of labour; and to remedy this, £8000. was voted by the Provincial Legislature to provide for the introduction of immigrants, and an agent has been despatched to England for the sole purpose of securing for the province men of the right stamp, and to superintend and make provision for their embarkation. 16 Before the expiration of the present year these immigrants will have begun to arrive, and we hope to see the stream thus about to be reopened always kept flowing, and never suffered again to dry up. By this means we shall get labour not alone for private undertakings, but in quantity sufficient to enable the Government to undertake some of those numerous public works which are absolutely necessary for the true welfare of the people.

"At this moment, however, the expectations of the people of Nelson are directed chiefly towards the mineral resources of the province, and more particularly to its copper mines. Parties are now engaged in raising twenty tons of ore, which are to be shipped to England; and if this quantity proves to be as satisfactory a sample as the smaller specimens which have

COPPER MINES.

been sent home, then, a company, the nucleus of which is already formed, will at once begin operations on a scale of considerable magnitude. We shall at present venture no opinion of our own as to the probable success of this important undertaking, but shall merely observe, that those who are most interested in the work are confident of success. Another year will, therefore, settle, to a considerable degree, the value of the Dun Mountain copper mine, which, if successful, is calculated to work a miraculous change in the position of the province in an inconceivably short time.

"In looking to the future we must not fail to notice the effects which may be expected from the political changes the colony has undergone. The power given to a local legislature, elected by almost universal suffrage, to appropriate in a province containing 6000 persons the large sum of £32,933 cannot fail to be attended with very marked results. The provision made by the Council for assisting schools, for erecting reading-rooms in the country districts, and for founding libraries, would alone be productive of changes highly beneficial to the future social welfare of the inhabitants; but when we have, in addition to

NELSON.

these votes, large sums appropriated for forming roads, building bridges, constructing jetties, exploring new tracts of country, and bringing to light the mineral treasures of the soil, and, if last not least, maintaining, in conjunction with the province of Wellington, a fortnightly steam communication between Cook's Strait and Melbourne, which will keep us within about seventy days' sail of England, it is difficult to estimate the full extent of the operation of this new state of things."

At a subsequent page will be found some observations on the present state of steam communication, not only between New Zealand and Australia, but also among the different settlements of New Zealand. The following notice of one of the earliest visits of a steam-vessel to the port of Nelson, may interest persons who have friends in that settlement: –

"The present week has been remarkable in Nelson from the fact that two steamers have arrived in our port, and there is a probability that before the week expires, the Nelson will have returned from the southward, which will then make the third. This, however, is not all. One of these steamers, the

COAL.

'William Denny,' a powerful vessel of 600 tons, has been engaged to run monthly between Sydney and Auckland, bringing the English mails, and we understand that the superintendents of Wellington and Nelson are negociating with the parties who own the 'William Denny,' for a similar class vessel to run between Cook's Strait, Sydney, and Melbourne. The general government has taken upon itself the charge of our inter-colonial steam communication." – Examiner, Aug. 5, 1854.

Recent advices from Nelson give a favourable report of the Motupipi coal which has long been used in the neighbourhood. The coal is found at the mouth of the Takaka river in Massacre Bay, and has been worked since 1845. A very favourable report on this coal, though only after a limited trial on board Her Majesty's ship Inflexible, was published by Commander Hoseason in 1847.

It has been also very lately used with success on board the Nelson steamer, and when mixed with an equal quantity of English coal, answered extremely well.

Nelson has been described by Mr. Fox, writing in 1851, as one of the best examples of an

NELSON.

entirely self-supporting, self-relying colony in the history of British Colonization.

When I visited the settlement two years ago, the resident labouring population of Nelson all agreed in saying that discontent, or necessity, as far as the chief comforts of life are concerned, were unknown among them. The more educated colonists appeared rather weary of the dulness of the neighbourhood, and also experienced great inconvenience from the want of labour and the means of cultivating their lands cheaply.

The following letter may interest persons desirous of information about this settlement. It is dated

"Nelson, New Zealand, June 23rd, 1854.

" Dear – – – – – -, F. tells me in his letter that you sometimes entertain notions about emigrating to New Zealand, and wish to have some particulars about Nelson, in regard to its legal requirements, &c. I have turned the subject over in my mind, and talked with – – – – – -, and thought again, and am nearly as far from being able to give you advice with any confidence as ever. The resident Magistrate's Court is a court of equity, guided, but not ruled, by precedent; in fact, the decisions very often deviate very widely from law. There is another Court, presided over by any of our numerous J.P.s, in which cases are decided in a similar rough and ready system.

"The Judge's Court has been a nullity since we have

COURTS OF JUSTICE.

been here, in consequence of the Judge, who lives at Wellington, and who receives his salary from the colony, claiming an extra sum from each province, which we contend he is not entitled to; and the matter remains to be decided by the General Assembly, now sitting at Auckland. In the mean time, we are without a Judge, and some prisoners committed for trial remain untried – one for manslaughter, and another for stealing a watch. A good knowledge of English Law is no doubt essential to success for a lawyer here, but I do not know of, and do not suppose there are, any books of law particularly adapted to the practice of law in New Zealand. 17 The Constitution Act you should get and study, and I believe there was, two or three years since, an Act of Parliament relating to the conveyance of land in New Zealand. I apprehend that there is no distinction made here between a barrister and a solicitor, and that either would practise indiscriminately, 18 although I should suppose a barrister would, other things equal, have the preference.

"Should the settlement increase in numbers and prosperity, your income would undoubtedly increase with it. You might employ capital, without its taking up any of your time, by buying and placing out sheep

NELSON.

to breed in the Wairau plains, situate about eighty miles from the town. I do not think it would answer to practise in your profession and to farm at the same time; as either pursuit, to be remunerative, would take all your personal attention. There is a quick and remunerative sale for farm produce; but labour is so scarce here, that I believe it is difficult to farm to advantage without personal attention and labour. I believe most of the farmers have made money; but the last season the potatoe crop failed, from the long dry season; and the difficulty of getting labour is a great impediment in getting in and thrashing the grain. We have a large surplus fund for immigration purposes, and the Council are now about sending home money, and an agent to get labourers out here. When this evil is rectified, I have no doubt the colony will advance rapidly, as we shall no doubt always – or at least for a long time to come – have a good market in Australia for our produce.

"Most of the farms lie between six and fifteen miles from the town on the Wairau plains; and all the available land in that district has been bought up by speculators or occupiers, and is now worth from £10. to £15. per acre. There are, however, other places in the settlement more distant from the town, perhaps as advantageous, which any one looking out for might find, at less money, or even in Government hands at 5s. and 10s, per acre. There is a considerable number of settlers in the Wairau plains, who are occupied in sheep and cattle grazing, some few having dairy farms, making cheese and butter, which they salt down and send to Wellington or Nelson. A very large number of the sheep

CAPITAL REQUIRED.

and the runs are owned by residents in Nelson, who only visit the Wairau at intervals of a few months.

"If you should come out here, and follow your profession with a determination to make an income, I have no doubt you could make one; and there is always a chance in a colony of getting an official appointment. Should you come out intending to farm with a capital of say £1000. 19 or more, I think you could make a very respectable income ; and should labour get more plentiful, perhaps in a few years an independence ; or should you go to the Wairau plains, or other distant parts of the settlement, to breed sheep or cattle and horses, I think, with ordinary good luck, you would make and save money.

"Almost all the settlers here have made money and realised an independence, although I believe there are few but commenced with little or nothing. But the old settlers have an advantage which a new one would not be likely to meet with. Land and live stock was a few years since, in consequence of the depressed state of the colony, very low in price; and those who were fortunate enough to possess any means have derived the advantage of the rise in prices from the progress of

NELSON.

the colony, and the new market opened for their produce in Australia.

"Although there is no hare, fox, or stag hunting, there is very good shooting, plenty of rabbits, a very large wild pigeon, and a specie3 of parrot, good eating, called a Ka-ka. Wild pigs also abound in most of the woods, and are easily found and hunted down by dog, or shot with gun or pistol."

The particulars which follow are taken from a recent Colonial Gazette: –

GOVERNMENT RETURNS.

European Population in the Province of Nelson, for the years 1849 to 1853, inclusive: –

1849

1850

1851

1852

1853

Males

1795

2175

2317

2454

2744

Females

1477

1872

1970

2133

2404

Totals

3272

4047

4287

4587

5148

Stock in the Province of Nelson, for the years 1849 to 1853, inclusive: –

1849

1850

1851

1852

1853

Horses

353

451

532

682

1018

Mules

10

12

13

11

10

Cattle

4160

5064

5838

7591

8683

Sheep

53,348

70,960

92,014

114,773

134,830

Goats

6439

5637

5842

2058

2797

Pigs

2810

2049

2615

2087

3704

GOVERNMENT RETURNS.

Land (in acres) fenced and cultivated in the Province of Nelson, for the years 1849 to 1853, inclusive 20 : –

1849

1850

1851

1852

1853

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Acres.

Fenced

3715

7143

9364

11,015

13,250

Wheat

1168

1339

2121

2042

1202

Barley

1052

749

716

993

728

Oats

400

470

611

852

892

Maize

2

1

5

3

6

Potatoes

198

316

322

415

424

English Grasses

377

829

1148

1837

2775

Gardens and Orchards

136

226

276

305

389

Hops

"

"

25

20

5

Other Crops

303

312

299

764

436

The following remarks, upon the prospects of the colony for the present year, are from a late number of the Nelson Examiner: –

"Nelson, with a population of about 6000 souls, spread along 150 miles of coast, and separated by geographical features from the other colonies of New Zealand, has a parliament of its own, elected by almost universal suffrage, and this parliament, or provincial council has voted £32,933. towards assisting schools, erecting reading rooms, founding libraries, forming roads, bridges, and jetties, besides £8000. to promote emigration, and a certain

NELSON.

sum for an annual fund to keep up a monthly steam communication with Wellington and Canterbury, and a monthly communication between Cook's Strait and Melbourne. Efforts are also being made to open new tracts of country, the available grazing land attached to Nelson being very limited."

The Examiner, for January 24, 1855, in reference to financial affairs, observes: –

"The estimates laid before the Council on Friday last, the 18th of January, must be a source of congratulation to all persons in the province. Not only is the amount of revenue to be appropriated much larger, than we could have anticipated a few years ago, but the proposed distribution of it, will likewise, we believe, be received with favour. Out of the whole sum of £32,138. 9s. 3d. estimated for expenditure, only £5,597. 5s. is for maintaining the Government of the province, while upwards of £26,500 is set down for public works of one kind or another. We believe we may assert, that in no other province in the colony will the expenditure on public works bear so large a proportion to the nett revenue as in Nelson."

15 At present it is necessary to make a circuit of nearly 100 miles along the valleys between the port town and the Wairau Plains, in order to avoid traversing the precipitous and densely wooded mountains which intervene.

16 See Chapter XIII.

17 The volume of "New Zealand Ordinances" contains a few Statutes peculiar to the colony. In all other matters, New Zealand is governed by the laws of Great Britain.

18 It is enacted by the ''New Zealand Ordinances" that barristers or solicitors shall be allowed to practise without any distinction in all courts of New Zealand.

19 A capital of £1000., the sum mentioned above, as sufficient for a person occupied in professional pursuits – or, even with ample leisure to overlook the work of others, but not himself a practical agriculturist – I do not think would now be sufficient; indeed, I would not, at the present rate of wages, recommend any one to go to New Zealand with the intention of tilling land as his sole source of income, unless he have at least a capital of £2000.

20 See page 135, for returns for 1855.

CHAPTER VI. NEW PLYMOUTH.

CHAPTER VI.

NEW PLYMOUTH.

THE settlement of New Plymouth, or Taranaki, so called from the native name of Mount Egmont, around which it lies, has been frequently spoken of as "The Garden of New Zealand." Mount Egmont itself, an extinct volcano, rises from a generally level country to the height of 8840 feet, by a gradual ascent, from a circle of about 30 miles in diameter, which forms the outer circumference of its base. About half this outer base on the western side, from Sugar Loaf Point to the mouth of the Waimate river, is formed by the sea coast, and Cape Egmont forms at once the most western point of this circle, and the northern headland of the western entrance to Cook's Strait.

Perhaps half of the area of the circle described is sufficiently level for cultivation.

South-east of the Mount Egmont, a broad tract of level country extends as far as the Wanganui district, already mentioned in the description of Wellington. The country lying

NEW PLYMOUTH.

in the immediate neighbourhood of Sugar Loaf Point, and to the northward, was selected as the site of a settlement, founded by colonists, chiefly from the west of England. The first body of colonists started from England in November, 1840, under the auspices of an association, called the "Plymouth Company of New Zealand," which was afterwards merged in the New Zealand Company.

The following is a brief account of New Plymouth, published twelve months ago: –

"The settlement of New Plymouth is situated on the west coast of the north island, about 120 miles to the south of Auckland. It does not possess a harbour, ships being obliged to ride in an open but very safe roadstead; it is, however, amply compensated for this want by the extraordinary fertility of its soil, which has gained for it the name of the 'Garden of New Zealand.' Moreover, on the acquisition of a beautiful portion of the district called the Waitera, which it is expected will soon be in the possession of the Government, a snug river harbour for coasters and small vessels will be obtained. All accounts concur in praising its agricultural capabilities and beautiful scenery. The Bishop of New Zea-

THE TOWN.

land says of it: 'No one can speak of the soil and scenery of New Zealand till he has seen both the natural beauties and the ripening harvests of Taranaki' (New Plymouth). And the late Governor, Sir George Grey, has observed, respecting it, 'I have never, in any part of the world, seen such extensive tracts of fertile and unoccupied land as at Taranaki.'"

The town, or rather village, slopes upward from the sea-beach, and, with its neat white houses, contiguous cultivation, green forests, and back-ground of wooded hills, crowned by the snow-capped cone of Mount Egmont, presents a pleasing aspect. It has a substantial granite-built church, besides dissenting chapels, an hospital, two taverns, a library, and a literary institution, &c.

"The country around is undulating, broken, and interspersed with dells, which vary in size from half an acre to two or three acres, densely wooded, and generally containing a small but unfailing spring of fresh water. The English population of the district, in number about 2000, is fast increasing, and there is probably no little community in the world where the prosperity and well being of the people is of a more real and substantial character.

NEW PLYMOUTH.

The reader, more immediately interested in New Plymouth, will obtain much information from a guide-book written expressly for that settlement by Mr. Hursthouse, 21 formerly a colonist of New Plymouth. New Plymouth has by many writers been eulogised as the most fertile as well as the most beautiful of all the New Zealand settlements. It is probable, however, that during the last two or three years, the productiveness of the soil of the Canterbury Plains, as well as portions of other settlements, have been found fully to equal those of New Plymouth. In pastoral capabilities it is greatly deficient, having no large plains suitable for grazing comprised in the province, like those of Wellington in the North Island, and of all the settlements in the Middle Island.

In beauty of scenery it probably has no rival in any part of the islands at all frequented by Europeans.

Much prejudice has been excited against this settlement, not only in former years, but also very recently, by exaggerated reports re-

TURBULENCE OF THE NATIVES.

specting the hostility of the natives of the neighbouring districts to the white population. These rumours have been circulated not only in England, but also throughout the settlements of New Zealand, and have conveyed an impression that New Plymouth is almost as dangerous a place of residence for British colonists as the most disturbed portions of the Cape colony in Africa. I have, therefore, endeavoured to set before the reader a clear account of the recent disturbances among the native population. From this it will be seen that hostilities have been entirely confined to rival native factions, and that the English settlers have not been in any way implicated in the skirmishes which have recently occurred.

The only serious inconvenience suffered by the English from the late native quarrels has arisen in consequence of a "tapu," or veto, against the passing of travellers of any description, having been placed by the combatants, over a considerable district frequented by the settlers; and this was done in order to put a stop to all intercourse between certain parties among the rival factions. An extract, which I quote from the Taranaki Herald for

NEW PLYMOUTH.

August, 1854, gives an account of the origin of the quarrel.

"A fatal affray took place in the vicinity of the Bell Block district on Thursday, August 3, between two parties of natives, in which several lives were lost, and a number of men more or less severely wounded.

"From what we have been able to learn, the cause of the quarrel appears to have arisen as follows: – Rawiri Waiaua had sown with wheat some land in the neighbourhood. The wheat was springing when one of Katatore's natives named Topia destroyed it by strewing fern over the land, and then firing the fern. This act induced Rawiri to declare that he would dispose of a block of land to the Europeans, in opposition to the wishes of Katatore, as a retaliation for the injury done to him; and shortly after Rawiri, in conjunction with his elder brother (Paora Te Kopi) and others, offered a considerable block, not, however, including the land on which the wheat had been sown, to the Government. On the morning of the 3rd of August, Rawiri, accompanied by a party of natives to the number of twenty-six, proceeded to the land with the intention of asserting his

NATIVE AFFRAY.

ownership by cutting boundary lines. Katatore on learning this assembled a strong party (the number of which is variously stated, one side affirming it to be sixty, the other as amounting to only half that number), armed with double-barrel guns and muskets. Starting with these before daybreak, he waylaid Rawiri and his men, who had only their billhooks and two or three spears and native weapons with them, at a spot near the eastern boundary of the Bell Block, and between that and the Mangoraka. Katatore warned Rawiri's party to desist from cutting the line, which the latter refused to do. At this juncture Katatore fired into the air, and into the ground, to denote that he was determined to fight, and subsequently his party fired at close quarters on Rawiri and his people, killing four on the spot; and Rawiri and his brother Paora are since dead of their wounds. Five others, more or less severely wounded, are still in the colonial hospital, to which establishment Rawiri was also conveyed. Four others were slightly wounded. All the parties belong to the Puketapu tribe, and the quarrel in its commencement is said to have been purely a family one, on the subject of the land. It is but fair to state that the account given by

NEW PLYMOUTH.

Katatore of the whole transaction differs in many respects from the foregoing, which has been principally gathered from Rawiri's party. He (Katatore) denies having taken Rawiri's party by surprise, and declares that he sent them warning the night before, and advised them, if they did come, to bring their guns with them. He says he has no quarrel with the Europeans, they had nothing to do with the affair, and if they did not interfere would come to no harm, but that he is determined to maintain his rights, and fight for his land to the last."

The next quotation is taken from the Taranaki Herald of September 20,1854, and refers chiefly to the inconvenience likely to result to the European settlers from the disturbed state of the natives.

"Numerous have been the reports which during the past week have been in circulation as to the past, present, and probable future state of affairs in reference to this unfortunate occurrence. The first step taken by the relatives of the deceased, after having interred the body of their chief, was to place a tapu on the Devon road and the beach, so as to cut off all intercourse between the natives living north

NATIVE AFFRAY.

of the Bell Block and the settlers. To enforce this tapu they have constructed a pa on Rawiri's section on the Bell Block, and another on the native reserve at Tairutu, thus effectually stopping the northern road to all passers. The embargo, however, does not extend to the settlers nor to natives carrying her Majesty's mails.

"This temporary suspension of commercial intercourse between the town and so extensive a district, will doubtless be very inconvenient both to our merchants and to the natives, and it was at first supposed that an attempt might be made on the part of the latter to force a passage. This, however, they now say they have no intention of doing, as the imposition of the tapu is in strict accordance with Maori custom, and although they might have supposed that such customs would not have been resorted to now a days, they have nothing to say against it, and will patiently wait its removal. We need scarcely point out to our own settlers the wisdom of the above determination, nor caution them – one and all – how great soever their influence with the aborigines may be – to abstain from any attempt either to pass through or evade the tapu, for the sake of obtaining produce from the Waitara or elsewhere

NEW PLYMOUTH.

by land. There is nothing to prevent a communication with the natives northward by water, either by means of boats or canoes.

"No step that could be taken by any one of our settlers would tend in so great a degree to embroil himself with the natives, or to involve the Government in the present quarrel, as any attempt at tampering with this tapu: and here we may say, that we have observed with great pleasure the disposition so generally evinced by the settlers to comply with the wishes of the authorities, by keeping aloof from this quarrel. It is only by a strict observance of this policy of non-interference that the safety of the settlement can in the present excited state of the natives be insured; as on the other hand, it is only by its non-observance that that safety can be imperilled.

"The natives are still much excited, and continue to call loudly for vengeance upon the murderers. We learn that they intend cultivating a piece of ground near Katatore's pa in the hopes of alluring him beyond the bounds of his fortress, within which he has hitherto discreetly confined himself. Should this have the desired effect, a sharp contest would ensue, which would probably end in the destruction of

NATIVE AFFRAY.

Katatore and his party, and there the matter would be likely to drop."

At the opening of the Provincial Council for New Plymouth, on the 2nd of October, 1854, the disputes were still unsettled. They do not, however, appear to have excited any apprehension in the mind of the Superintendent, who referred to them in the following words: –

"The recent native affray continues to unsettle the native population. As it is a question exclusively under the authorized control of the general Government, I have not considered it advisable to appear at any discussion of the question by the natives; such a course might have devolved on this province a portion of the responsibility which best rests where it lies – with the general Government. Mr. Commissioner McLean, the best qualified officer in the colony, to investigate this internal quarrel of a tribe, has been deputed by his Excellency, and I have no doubt but that everything that can be done will be done by that gentleman, at whose disposal, in carrying out the intentions of the general Government, I have placed the cooperation and assistance of the provincial Government. I have every reliance on the good feeling that has always subsisted between the two

NEW PLYMOUTH.

races, continuing to prevent the European population from interfering in this native quarrel. As some evidence of the good feeling of the native race to the European, I may mention, that while one party applied for military aid, the chief of the other stated that if afforded by the Government he should not consider the settlers as involved by it."

The concluding extracts which I have taken from the "Taranaki Herald," for December, 1854, will give the reader all information of more than purely local interest respecting a recent engagement between the hostile tribes.

"The native quarrel has not yet terminated – indeed it seems as far from ending as ever – Katatore is confined to his pa, and is continually watched by his opponents, who outnumber him considerably, but he is a man of great resources, and holds his followers well in hand. His opponents are without a leader, and are, I believe, afraid of Katatore's powers. On one or two occasions he has left his pa, and encountered his besiegers, but natives prefer firing at secure distances, and two engagements have terminated with one man in each slightly wounded. The settlers who live in the immediate vicinity of the belligerents are on equally

NATIVE AFFRAY.

good terms with both parties, and there is no reason to apprehend any extension of the war to the settlers. It would be much better for the natives, and much more profitable to the settlers if the disturbances were at an end, as all parties would be benefited if they would handle the axe and the plough, instead of unnecessarily watching each other as if they really intended to fight."

An account of a skirmish which took place on the 27th of December, 1854, between two very numerous bodies of natives, at a pa or native village called Mamaku, about 12 miles from New Plymouth, after giving the details of the quarrel, which was entirely limited to a squabble between two native chiefs, Ihaia and Ngatiruanui, concludes in the following words: –

"So anxious were the victors to have no ground of quarrel with the Europeans, that after Mamaku, the territory on which the fight took place, was abandoned to them, they particularly respected property which they were informed was owned by Europeans.

"Six natives were killed on each side, and four wounded of Ihaia's party and twelve on the side of the Ngatiruanuis."

Meetings have recently been held in New

NEW PLYMOUTH.

Plymouth, to take steps for the formation of a Rifle Corps for the protection of the settlers, in case there should be danger of the British Government becoming involved in hostilities with the natives. The Lieutenant-Governor has also recently sent down, for the protection of the settlement, 300 soldiers from Auckland, with a message informing the settlers that, while the present demands upon the military resources of Great Britain continue, it is impossible that a larger number of troops can be spared for the province of New Plymouth alone.

The presence in the district of so large a number of natives as are there established, far out-numbering the English settlers within the province or at the nearest settlements, is, undoubtedly, a serious impediment to the rapid progress of this colony, so long as there exists the remotest probability of a cessation of the present amicable intercourse between the original and the modern inhabitants of the country. And it is possible, that persons with families dependent upon them, may prefer to establish their homes in some other portion of New Zealand, where the almost entire absence of natives is a sure guarantee against the occurrence of such scenes as have lately disturbed Taranaki.

NATIVE AFFRAY.

Very recent advices from the colony prove, that the native disagreements are likely to affect the English settlers more seriously than was at first expected. In fact so great has been the apprehension of danger to themselves among the colonists, that a petition to the Queen was despatched by the Provincial Council in April of the present year, which is thus noticed in the "Australian and New Zealand Gazette" for August 18, 1855.

"The state of affairs at New Plymouth with regard to the natives is increasing in importance, and we therefore give the address of the Superintendent and Council of the Province to the Queen, as it contains a careful statement of the case from the best authority: –

TO HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY VICTORIA, QUEEN OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, &c. &c.

The Memorial of the Superintendent and Provincial Council of the Province of New Plymouth, in the colony of New Zealand –

HUMBLY SHEWETH – That since the beginning of the month of August, 1854 (a period of more than seven months), this province has been the seat of serious and increasing disturbances amongst the native population. Upwards of

NEW PLYMOUTH.

twenty natives, including the native assessor of the resident magistrate, have already fallen, and many more have been wounded, in the various encounters which have recently taken place between large bodies of armed natives, within a few miles of the town of New Plymouth. Tribe after tribe is involved in these feuds, and our settlement seems about to become the battlefield for a large portion of the Maori population.

"The natives are fast losing the last remnant of respect for British law. It would, indeed, be a great error to suppose that British law has ever been enforced against them in this part of the country. The native has been allowed the benefit of our law against the European, but the corresponding obligations it has never, in our province, been attempted to impose upon him. Persuasion, and the influence of chiefs salaried by Government, have now and then obtained an imperfect justice for the Europeans. We have acquiesced in the inevitable evils of our position, and have been content to await the time when the natives should be brought within the pale of our civilisation. But a crisis has now occurred, and the weak pretences which covered the supremacy of the savage have been done away with. The slaughter of an assessor, Rawiri Waiaua, and his unarmed party, almost within our homesteads, has been followed by other acts of violence. Fortified pas are rapidly rising throughout the district. The natives declare to us, 'Your law is weak, and we return to our old customs;' and though, as yet, their

NATIVE AFFRAY.

own people have been the only sufferers, we know not how soon it may be our turn, since the imprudence of an individual may at any moment involve our whole community.

"That one of the two parties into which the natives are divided (commonly styled the friendly party) claims a right to the support of the British Government. The general ground of this claim is the fact that this party has been favourable to land sales and the extension of the European settlements. Rawiri belonged to this side, and actually met his death whilst cutting the boundary line of a block he was about to offer to Government, with the sanction of the resident Land Purchase Commissioner. The other native party is inveterately opposed to the extension of our territory. The officers of Government are continually solicited by the former party for supplies of arms and ammunition, and threats are thrown out that, if these be not given, they will be taken. They revile what they term our cowardice in leaving Rawiri unavenged. 'He was one of your magistrates,' they tell us, 'and he fell in your cause.' It is certain this party, if worsted, would fall back on the town, from which the nearest of their pas is not distant above two miles. In such a state of affairs we have great reason to fear that we shall shortly be dragged into the quarrel.

"That the settlement is wholly without defence. It possesses no kind of fortification, and the firearms supplied many years ago by Government and the New Zealand Company are inefficient. Of ammunition there is little, and

NEW PLYMOUTH.

that little not to be relied upon. The militia have never been embodied, and it is in the opinion of your memorialists impossible, at the present juncture, to place any reliance on such a force for the defence of the settlement. Your memorialists and their fellow settlers are not to blame for their helpless position, which has been enforced upon them by the pacific and humanely-intended policy of your Majesty's Government.

"That your memorialists are not prepared to ask for the enforcement of British law against the warlike population of these islands, being satisfied that, even were it clearly just, the thing is quite impracticable. But your memorialists are of opinion that the presence of a strong body of troops at New Plymouth has become essential to the personal safety of the settlers, and to the maintenance of that neutrality which the British Government has assumed in the native quarrels. We are indeed sensible that before this memorial can reach its destination it is quite possible that New Plymouth may have shared the fate of Kororareka. Yet, though we should providentially escape the immediate danger, the causes which have produced the present crisis will all remain in active operation, and it is possible, and not indeed, improbable, from the native character, that the present elements of strife may smoulder for many months ere the final outbreak. Therefore, we feel we should be wanting in our duty to our constituents did we neglect to urge, at the distant seat of empire, our claim for help, trusting that help may reach us ere it be too late.

NATIVE AFFRAY.

"That there is no ground for supposing that the presence of troops at New Plymouth would have any tendency to embroil us with the natives. Before the death of Rawiri, which was the commencement of the present troubles, an application for troops was made to Government by Hone Ropiha, an assessor and a peace-loving and influential chief. He foresaw the mischief then brewing, and believed (we think truly) that the presence of a military force would have averted it. A large body of natives would rejoice at the sight of soldiers. Others, it is true, might have a jealous feeling on the subject, but it would be easy to restore confidence by judicious explanations. Your Majesty will perceive it is unlikely we should urge measures really calculated to lead to a collision which (however it might result) would certainly occasion the destruction of the chief part of our property.

"That, in consequence of the disallowance of the greater part of the New Zealand Company's original purchase by Governor Fitzroy, of the extensive land purchases made in other provinces, and of reserves made in this province for the natives of other districts, there has been a progressive increase of the Maori population of Taranaki. When we arrived fourteen years ago, we could not count tens, where we now reckon hundreds. The action, if not the policy, of the General Government has tended to concentrate upon us the native population from all parts of New Zealand, thereby exposing us to increasing difficulty and danger, whilst the other

NEW PLYMOUTH.

provinces are proportionably relieved. Thus we have a special claim to protection.

"That it having been alleged that the country about New Plymouth is peculiarly unfavourable for military operations, your memorialists (without pretending to any military knowledge) do most unhesitatingly declare their belief that the contrary is the fact; and that the levels of Taranaki are vastly more favourable for the movement of regular troops than most districts of New Zealand, and certainly much more so than any field in which Europeans have hitherto been opposed to Maories.

"That a garrison at New Plymouth, with a few field pieces, would have at command all the pas and native cultivations between this and the Waitara, and would thereby afford us the surest guarantee of peace, with a people who are well able to compute forces, and (for barbarians) are singularly fond of property, and the possessors of a large amount of it.

"That the General Government of New Zealand has been kept constantly informed on the subject of this memorial, and is well aware of our sentiments, but has hitherto declined to take any step for the succour of the settlement, either by a supply of efficient arms or by sending troops. It is not possible here to discuss the reasons alleged for the continued refusal of troops. We can only say that to us they appear wholly insufficient; and nothing but the respect due to your Majesty's representative prevents us from characterising them in more forcible terms.

NATIVE AFFRAY.

"That your memorialists do not impute to those at whose disposal the military force of this colony is at present placed a conscious actuation by improper motives. Time and patience have caused many native difficulties to disappear; and, in our case, there maybe enough to justify a public man, with but little knowledge of native character, in yielding to a belief of our security, which on other grounds it is convenient to entertain. But we must be allowed to deplore the undue influence which local interests have, as we believe, been suffered to acquire in the conduct of the affairs of this colony.

"That various measures for the safety of the settlement suggested by his Excellency through the Colonial Secretary, and by Mr. M'Lean, have been considered by your memorialists, and appear to us either impracticable or inadequate. On the calling out of the militia, suggested by Mr. M'Lean, we have already expressed an opinion. Another suggestion is the embodiment of a native force. A knowledge of the natives of this district assures us that the experiment would be a very dangerous one. We are unable to preserve discipline amongst our small force of native police, and should consider an armed body of natives more dangerous to ourselves than to the enemy, except indeed as allies of an European force. Moreover, the connection of the various members of such a force with one or other of the native parties in the present warfare would be likely to compromise ourselves. We cannot pass without remark, his

NEW PLYMOUTH.

Excellency's main suggestion, that our police force be increased to thirty or forty men, to be armed with carbines and revolvers. We do not intend to deny the efficiency of such a force, composed of men acquainted with the country, and (as his Excellency has suggested) previously used to arms; but the number named betrays, in our judgment, a wonderful misapprehension of the actual exigency. Indeed, in another despatch of the Colonial Secretary, his Excellency states from 300 to 400 troops as what might be required. Nor are we even told where we are to enlist forty men of the kind required.

"That the reality of our danger is undisputed. It has been urged on the Government, by the Chief Land Purchase Commissioner, Mr. M'Lean, to whose report on the subject, made to his Excellency, the officer administering the Government, and accompanying this memorial, we respectfully beg to refer your Majesty. Most of your memorialists are old settlers, habituated to the ways of the Maories. That we have maintained our ground in Taranaki, under great discouragement from a native opposition, fostered rather than checked by the early governors of the colony, is a proof that we are not subject to vain terror, and that our present application to your Majesty is worthy of regard.

"That your memorialists are convinced, that unless a considerable military force be for some years maintained in New Zealand, and especially in districts like Taranaki, where a large native population is in contact with a British settle-

NATIVE AFFRAY.

ment, another costly and deplorable war with the aboriginal race will be ultimately inevitable. We beseech your Majesty not to be misled by nattering accounts of native progress, into the belief that the New Zealander is a civilised man. The progress made (often, we regret to believe, more apparent than real) cannot be secured, if your British subjects are left at the mercy of semi-savages. Maintain for a time, that display of strength which has hitherto ensured some respect for the British power, and it will, we believe, at no distant date, become unnecessary. Withdraw it prematurely, and your Majesty may witness, in this part of your Majesty's dominions, calamities as great as those which have recently occurred under British rule, in South Africa. Savages despise the weak – we have fallen into contempt; and those who have become contemptible are no longer safe.

"Your memorialists, therefore, pray that your Majesty will be pleased to cause an efficient garrison to be posted at Taranaki, for the defence of the settlers. And we further pray your Majesty will be pleased not to reduce the military force at present in these islands, unless, indeed, the requirements of the righteous warfare in which your Majesty and the empire are already engaged, should unhappily render it absolutely necessary to recall troops.

"And your memorialists will ever pray, &c."

The limited extent of the territory annexed to New Plymouth, has long been a serious impediment to the advancement of the province, and

NEW PLYMOUTH.

there has always been great difficulty in obtaining from the natives, a larger extent of land than they have already made over to the New Zealand Government. The district has also suffered much of late, from the want of a labouring population disposed to work regularly for hire, at a reasonable rate. It is as impossible in a colony, as everywhere else, to embark with any hope of success upon agriculture, as a profitable speculation, when the labour which is to render the resulting crops marketable by reaping, harvesting, &c., cannot be looked forward to with certainty, and when the employer is liable to be left in the lurch by the workmen he depends upon, at any moment when their inclination or more profitable pursuits requiring their attention may happen to influence them.

The settlers of New Plymouth have lately taken measures to provide passages for labourers from Melbourne, with the understanding that persons availing themselves of such gratuitous passage to New Zealand, will be willing to engage themselves for hire at a certain rate, for specified periods after their arrival in the colony. The result of this project has not yet been ascertained in England.

The following paragraph, extracted from

HARVEST OF 1855.

the New Zealander, alludes to the harvest expected at the commencement of the present year, 1855: – "Could we but state that the supply of labour in New Plymouth was in any respect commensurate with the demand, our agricultural condition might well be called enviable; but, such is the utter dearth of labour, that, notwithstanding the high price obtained for produce, the gains of the farmer are far less than the gross proceeds of his account sales might lead some to suppose. We rejoice, however, to know that they are so far satisfactory, as to have led to a large cultivation of this fertile soil, which is steadily and successfully increasing on every side. Many of our colonial merchants are colonial farmers. Hence agriculture and commerce walk earnestly together and hand in hand. The crops of 1854-5 promise to turn out excellently. The potatoes are good in quality, and abundant in quantity. Much of the early-cut hay suffered from rain, but the later crop has been mown and stacked under the most favourable circumstances. The wheat is in considerable breadth, and looks well; but of barley, there has been little grown; and oats also have been but

NEW PLYMOUTH.

sparingly cultivated. Of maize there is reason to believe that a considerable quantity has been sown. Onions, it is said, will be scarce."

The Government Returns for 1854 prove that New Plymouth has shared in the increasing wealth of all parts of New Zealand. Here, however, as in other parts of the colony, the dearness of provisions and scarcity of labour to hire has told severely during the past year on the prospects and the fortunes of emigrants above the rank of ordinary labourers, who had hoped, on taking up their abode in a colony, to find cheapness not only in the means of subsistence, but also in the means and appliances of comfortable rural life.

Among such hoped-for advantages, not always found in a colony, must certainly be classed the opportunity of procuring servants to perform many laborious and troublesome operations, which form the daily business of the labouring classes at home, but which, in a colony, must often be either entirely neglected, or accomplished by the unskilled exertions of persons little accustomed to manual labour of any kind.

The Customs Revenue receipts for New Plymouth, for the four months previous to

IMPORTS AND EXPORTS.

May, 1855, amounted to £1197., showing an increase of £180. on the corresponding period in 1854.

The following is a summary of a recent Government Gazette relating to New Plymouth:

"The Provincial Gazette of the 14th October, 1854, amongst other matters, contains accounts of the vessels entered inwards and outwards from the Port of New Plymouth during the quarter ending the 30th September, and the produce exported from the settlement during that period. These accounts show progressing prosperity and present a gratifying proof of the vast increasing business of the settlement. From the 30th of June to the 30th of September, thirteen vessels have been entered inwards, the aggregate tonnage of which was 2537 tons. Nine of the vessels brought general cargo – one in ballast, two 20,000 feet of timber and 100 bushels of wheat, and one 1100 sheep. The outward table shows ten vessels of an aggregate tonnage of 2010 tons, by which the following produce has been exported: – Potatoes, 152 tons; oats, 808 bags and 300 bushels; butter, 3 1/2 tons, 37 kegs, and 9 casks; pork and hams, 3 tons; wheat, 795 sacks and 52 bags; maize, 224 bags; and bran, 21 sacks. The Gazette

NEW PLYMOUTH.

also contains accounts of the sales of crown lands during the months of August and September. In August, 21 town sections were sold, producing £381.; and in September, 8 town sections, producing £140. The rural lands sold in August, consist of 1110 acres, and in September 100 acres, producing £600.; making a total sale of land amounting to £1151.

PRICES OF STOCK. – "At Mr Gledule's auction of stock, on the 31st of March, 1855, the following prices were realized: –

"A large bullock fetched £17. 2s. 6d.; two milch cows, one £10. 15s., the other, £8. 12s. 6d.; one steer, £6. 4s. 6d. By private sale, two two-and-a-half year old steers were sold for £30., – 32s. each refused for good ewes and wethers." 22 – Taranaki Herald, April 4, 1855.

It will be seen in a subsequent chapter that New Plymouth has not been left behind in the general desire to obtain the advantages of steam communication to its harbour.

The much agitated question as to the best means of the disposal of the Government lands in the colony has been as warmly discussed at New Plymouth as in other settlements; and an entirely new code of regulations has recently been laid before the Provincial Council for

LAND REGULATIONS.

approval. The portions of these regulations most interesting to a reader in England will be found in Chapter XV., but the same observation may be made respecting the purchase of land in this as in other settlements, viz., That as a general rule, it will answer the purpose of a newly arrived colonist better to buy land in a good locality, even at a great increase on the original cost price, from some one who has cultivated or improved a section, than to seek, in distant and cheap allotments, land equally good probably in its quality, but inconveniently situated as to its approaches and neighbourhood.

21 Hursthouse's New Plymouth, 3rd edition, 1851-2. Stanford, Charing Cross.

22 I have been unable to obtain any recent lists of market prices for New Plymouth.

CHAPTER VII. OTAGO.

CHAPTER VII.

OTAGO.

THE settlement of Otago was founded under the auspices of the New Zealand Company by "An Association of Lay Members of the Free Church of Scotland for Promoting the Settlement of Otago."

The first body of colonists left England for the new settlement in December, 1847, and, reaching their destination early in 1848, proceeded in the establishment of a town, named Dunedin, at the south-western side of the harbour, now well known as Port Chalmers. Port Chalmers is situated in lat. 45 deg. 46' 48" south, long. 170 deg. 43' 12" east, being the southernmost harbour for large vessels on the eastern side of New Zealand, and lying about 250 miles to the south of Banks Peninsula in the Canterbury settlement.

The outer harbour, which opens to the northward, between Tairoa Head and Heyward Point, is about seven miles in length, and at the end of this is the port town, called Port Chalmers, beyond which vessels of large burthen cannot

GRAZING LANDS.

pass. The inner or lower harbour is about six miles in length, and at the end of this harbour is situated the capital town of the colony, called Dunedin. The Molyneux river and the country adjoining forms the southern boundary of the Otago district, which is throughout well wooded, with much undulating country, and great variety of scenery. It is also very well supplied with water, and in the Molyneux river possesses by far better water communication with the interior than any other portion of the middle island of New Zealand.

The settlement comprises, and has in its vicinity, very extensive plains and downs, suitable for sheep runs, besides much rich alluvial land, in which the production of corn and cattle could be carried on very easily, and to an almost unlimited extent.

One drawback, however, to the natural advantages by which the country is surrounded, is the want of unanimity among the colonists themselves; who appear to be jealous of the accession of any strangers to their settlement, who may not be disposed to fall in with all existing institutions and prejudices. The frequent discussions and bickering in the local newspapers have of late excited much ridicule in other parts of New

OTAGO.

Zealand; and from its unfrequent communication with the more northern settlements, Otago has of late been less noticed as a field of emigration than other parts of the islands.

The establishment of a regular communication by steam, between all parts of the country, will, doubtless, materially benefit this settlement; which, two years ago, was in so flourishing a condition with regard to its agricultural produce, as to be enabled to contribute largely, and at a reasonable rate, to the wants of the then newly established colony of Canterbury.

The following extracts are taken from a journal of a visit to Otago, in the summer of 1853, first published during the present year: – 23

"After peeping into every inlet and scrutinizing every bay along the eastern coast of New Zealand, from Foveaux Straits to Tairoa Head, we at length arrived off Port Chalmers, but only to be repelled by a southerly gale, which prevented our entering. However, after some loss of time, the wind veered gradually round to the north, and the tide answering at the same time, we were gently wafted inwards.

"Towards the south, the bay appeared closed at the distance of seven miles, by two islands, dividing the

DUNEDIN.

upper from the lower harbour. On the right and left, hills, densely clothed with evergreens and trees of noble stature, approached the shores, while, more remote, overlooking these, were others similarly wooded. We dropped anchor within a few hundred yards of the port town, in a somewhat sheltered bay. A few wooden houses, with a neat and unpretending little church on an elevated back ground, occupy nearly the whole available ground in Port Chalmers. A short half hour sufficed for a minute inspection, when, learning that a boat was about to leave for Dunedin, we availed ourselves of the opportunity.

"On passing between the islands, and opening out the upper harbour, the scenery had lost none of its loveliness. After rounding a head-land, the town became visible about six miles distant. The town of Dunedin is prettily situated at the foot of the inner harbour; and, considering its late formation, is very creditable to the industry of the inhabitants, who number about 600, and occupy some 150 to 200 wooden houses. The free church appeared a primitive looking building, with a double gable, built partly of stone and partly of brick, and the belfry being detached. Architectural preeminence must be given to the Mechanics' Institute, a more workmanlike erection, and just completed. When a few of the early morning hours the most enjoyable portion of a summer's day, are given to the cultivation of the little garden plots, the whole place will assume a much more smiling aspect.

"Having little time to spare, I resolved to start at

OTAGO.

once for the Molyneux district, which was represented as the finest part of the settlement; and visit, on our journey, the rich valleys of the Taieri and Tokomoriro. Having resolved to start by nine, we were astir betimes; but though summer, it was not till near eight that any symptoms of animation appeared among the shopkeepers of the town. Our course lay very nearly southerly, skirting the whole of a low range of hills covered with scrub; on our left, was a quantity of marshy land reclaimed by the formation of a sand bank, which had stretched between two adjacent rocky head-lands, and thus barred out the sea, which formerly communicated in this direction with the harbour.

"In this neighbourhood Mr. Valpy lived and died. As the principal employer of labourers in so young a colony, where the capital is but limited, his loss must be severely felt; the more so, as though not connected with the free church, he bore honourable testimony to the efficiency and worth of the emigrants in his employ, who had been sent out through the association.

"Pursuing our way among low hills, covered with flax, fern, and tutu, we reached Green Island, about five miles from Dunedin. The scenery much reminded my companion of the grazing lands of his native Highlands. The adjacent land is of limited extent, but fully occupied; affording abundance of timber for fuel, very fine grazing ground, and having a small rivulet running through it towards the sea. Crossing the Karkari by a wooden bridge, and ascending rather a steep hill, the road leads over a low spur of the neighbouring range, from whence the fine valley of the Taieri may be seen

TAIERI VALLEY.

to advantage. Immediately to the left, rising considerably above you, is Saddleback Hill, rich in its coal treasures; below, runs the valley, extending for many a long mile, dotted on both sides with several homesteads; while beyond, and to the right, the view is closed by lofty ranges. On reaching the valley, we passed a fine bush, containing 70,000 acres of timber, which, with the land in its immediate neighbourhood, is all taken up. The policy of allotting the whole of this bush to so few sections must be regarded as extremely doubtful, when it is borne in mind, that, with the exception of another bush at the southern extremity of the valley, and one or two insignificant ones in the gullies, the whole of the future population will be dependent on it for fencing and firewood. This partial allotment, will, I fear, injuriously affect the sale of the remaining disposable land, until at least the latent coal deposits shall be more satisfactorily developed. I could not afford time to visit the centre of the valley, where the land is represented to be very rich; and my observations were therefore limited to the soil in the immediate vicinity of the road, which, as it was occupied by a few agriculturists, I concluded was not regarded as inferior to other parts. Judging from sections exposed by trenching, and from the opinions of other people, there appeared to be about 9 to 12 inches of vegetable mould on a clayey subsoil. The neighbouring crops grown on unmanured land were of an ordinary stamp; the imported fruit trees and vegetables indicated, if not a first rate, at least a congenial climate; and the condition of the cattle and sheep bore ample testimony to the excellence of the pasture."

OTAGO.

After some troublesome adventures, owing to the want of a guide, over a swampy portion of the route, the writer reached the banks of the Molyneux river, and continues his account.

"The valley of the Molyneux runs nearly at right angles to the Taieri and Tokomoriro, taking somewhat of a W. N. W. course. The river Molyneux, sometimes called the Clutha, flows through the centre of the valley, from a distant point in the interior. It has been navigated by boats of large size for more than 50 miles inland. About eight miles from its mouth it is divided into two streams: that on the right being called the Koau, and that on the left the Matou, which enclose between them, before they again join in one stream, an island, eight miles in length by two in breadth, called 'Inch Clutha.' The whole of this island is already occupied by settlers.

"Towards the south, at a distance of eight miles, runs a range of hills, the Wairapa and the Kaihiku, sloping gently towards the river, and in general well wooded. The land between the Inch Clutha and these ranges, much of which is swampy, is laid off in sections extending 16 miles from the coast, and containing nearly one half of the Otago block.

"Beyond these ranges the country preserves very much the same character, including fine sheep runs, and with an occasional deficiency of timber for eight or ten miles."

This undulating land is said to extend far away southward, nearly to Foveaux Straits; and

MOLYNEUX DISTRICT.

the pastoral stations north of Otago extend, with a few interruptions, from the natural features of the country, until they meet the stock-owners' out-stations south of Canterbury.

"There cannot be a question as to the Molyneux being the finest portion of the Otago block. Its remoteness from the chief town – sixty miles – and its indifferent harbour, are among its chief disadvantages. The natural pastures of the Molyneux district, its hills and valleys alike, are abundant, extensive, and of the richest description. The cattle are in most excellent condition, and the butter and cheese are proverbially fine. Here, as elsewhere, the wooded sections are being seized on, and with the same inevitable result."

"The climate, though changeable, is pleasant; but an abundance of wood is an absolute necessity, as a fire is desirable at all times, and always of an evening."

"There is one subject which I would willingly avoid, were it compatible with the wish to give my real impressions of this promising settlement. I refer to the dissensions which exist among- the colonists. Latterly, they have assumed somewhat of a practical form, and I fear that they will not subside until the class nature of the settlement receives a final decision."

The price of land, when resold by private owners in Otago, as elsewhere in New Zealand, varies much according to the position or other qualities. The original price of rural lands was £2. an acre, for all land within the block, under the management of the Otago

OTAGO.

Association. It has probably ere this been reduced, but hitherto there has been no official announcement as to the future price of unsold Government lands. 24 There appears to be a very limited supply of labour in the settlement; but owing to the small comparative amount of its population, and the absence of very frequent communication with other settlements, which might increase the demands of the working classes, the rate of labour does not appear to have been so outrageously high at Otago, as in the other settlements, during the last twelve months.

In the annexed letter, written from Otago in March, 1855, some allusions to the price of labour and the quality of the land, as well as other matters interesting to colonists, will be found.

"Near Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand.

"MY DEAR SIR, – * * * * You ask me in your letter whether £1500 or £2000 would enable a man to live without descending to manual labour himself. I have no hesitation in saying that it would. At present labour is high and scarce; 9s. per day is asked by labourers and paid by employers; and, therefore, to follow agriculture only as a profitable investment

SHEEP FARMING.

would not pay; but by combining that with pastoral pursuits a very satisfactory result will be obtained. Sheep have been very high – viz. £2. 5s. per head; but you could at present get a flock of 500 for £750, and that number would be a very good beginning, and would soon pay the wages of the shepherd; then you could purchase a homestead, and employ a man and boy to farm and look after a few cattle at home; and, with a little additional help now and then, they should be able to pay the expenses of the house until the sheep increased sufficiently to do so by themselves. Shepherds' wages are now £35 per annum, with rations. There is not much profit to be made out of the land alone at the present rate of wages, but if the price of produce continues at the present rate, it must pay by and by; for the rate of wages will come down; the Provincial Council having voted a sum of money (£15,000, 25 I believe), for bringing labourers out, will of course throw a great many into our market, and therefore reduce the price of labour considerably. My advice is that if you come out to grow enough at your homestead for home consumption, and keep some cows at home for dairy produce; and then for income breed cattle and sheep: you are sure to succeed then; you cannot fail.

"A sheep-owner need not reside on his run, but live in a more civilised district, and visit his flock at times. The returns are from £90 to £100 per cent at least. It would take £150 to set the sheep-station going well,

OTAGO.

with wool-shed, &c.; but that, with your flock of 500, would only be about £900, so there would be plenty left out of the capital of £1500 for the homestead and other contingencies.

"We are much pleased with the climate; it is finer and warmer than Devonshire in the winter, and although very hot in summer, it is never oppressive. The air is clear and bracing. A fog I have never seen here; the air is remarkably dry. As to the roads, they, of course, are not to be compared to those in England; they get bad after a few days' rain, but soon get dry and dusty on the return of fine weather. The country is very beautiful this year from the universal flowering of the cabbage-tree, palms, and the flax; the former has a beautiful white flower, in bunches of two or three feet in diameter, which have the most delicious smell. They do not flower generally every year, for last summer I only saw one out in flower.

"The plough you sent I fear will not answer; it should have been a wrought iron one, and a Scotch swing plough (one without wheels). Those in general use here are made by McKerran, of Ayrshire, Scotland; none others seem to answer. We have made some large drawings of different localities round here, which we shall send to you by an early opportunity.

"The crops are looking well; the last harvest was one of the finest ever known in New Zealand, and from all appearances this present one will rival, if not surpass it. With regard to goods, I would not recommend any one to send or bring any amount of goods here on

BUSH LAND.

speculation; the market is very uncertain and soon glutted; the stores are now crammed with goods, and it would not surprise me to see things rather queer in a commercial way before long. When we arrived at Otago, there was scarcely such a thing as a pair of boots to be bought in the place, and now every store is full of them.

"A schooner of about fifty tons has just been built here, and is now away to Wellington, with a full cargo of Otago produce. The amount sent away this year is considerable. The captain of a Melbourne brig, the 'Oukaparinga,' went to Nelson for a cargo, but could not get one; the people there told him it was of no use his going on to Otago, but on he came, however, and got a full cargo to the value of £1500. There is a large amount of crop in this year, and much land that last year was covered with beautiful bush, is now green with waving wheat. The greater part of this particular locality, if cropping goes on at the rate it has done, will soon lose its dense bush, for terrible gaps appear in the forest all round; but, after all, there is nothing like good open land for cultivation, the wheat is better, and the flour whiter than the bush wheat, but the open land round Dunedin is covered with fern and flax, and the soil is shallow; the subsoil is stiff clay, and if ploughed too deep the crops are not so good in consequence; the land to the south, towards the Molyneux, is much better.

"The subject of immigration is now before the Council, and they have voted a sum of money (as I before mentioned) for the purpose; but I see that Captain

OTAGO.

Cargill is opposed to appointing' an agent in London, thereby showing that he, at all events, wishes to keep Englishmen away if he can; but let it be known as much as you can, that there are thousands upon thousands of acres of most excellent land in Otago to be had for ten shillings an acre, more land in fact than is possessed, for sale, by all the north island settlements put together. We only want settlers to develop the fine natural advantages of this province, and if people at home only knew the truth about Otago, we should be sure soon to have a large influx of settlers here. I think that all sorts of odd notions prevail respecting cannibals, earthquakes, &c., but Maories are very scarce here, thank goodness! and earthquakes have never been known in our province.

"We had a vessel in last week with a lot of stock. Your brother-in-law bought ten head of cattle at £14 each, and eight mares; cattle and horse breeding pay, I think, as well or better than sheep even, but more of this in my next."

The following return from a newly cultivated portion of the settlement, was compiled in May, 1854. "The amount of cultivated land in the district in question," the Lower Green Island District, "will be doubled next year. Oats being light, will not yield large returns, but the wheat should. Potatoes are generally small, and will not turn out well; we allow five tons to the acre. But we cannot say we have had

MARKET PRICES.

a fair trial of bush land. In furnishing this statement, we think you may allow the grain in the following proportions: – wheat, bush land, 30 bushels an acre; open land, 20 bushels an acre; oats, 40 bushels; open land, or bush. They grow stronger in the bush, but are apt to lodge or lie down, which diminishes the return. Potatoes, five tons per acre."

The market prices of Dunedin, in the middle of the winter of 1854, were as follows: – Retail prices current, July, 8th, 1854. Flour, per 100 lbs. 35s. to 38s.; seconds, 25s.; bread, per 4 lb. loaf, 1s. 4d.; wheat, per bushel, 10s.; oats, 5s.; beef, 5d. to 7d. per lb.; mutton, 5d to 7d.; pork, 5d. to 6d.; fresh butter, 1s. Ad.; salt ditto, 1s. 4d.; ground coffee, 1s. 8d.; raw ditto, 1s. 4d.; tea, 3s. 6d.; raw sugar, 5 1/2d. to 6 1/2d.; loaf ditto, 9d. to 10d.; mould candles, 9d. to 10d.; cheese, 6d. to 1s.; milk, per quart, 5d.; potatoes, per ton, £8.; eggs, per dozen, 1s. 4d.; hay, per ton, £5. 10s.; straw, £3.; sawn timber, 18s. to 20s. per 100 feet; shingles, 20s. per 1000; firewood, per cord, 18s. to 20s.

The prices of stock, at a cattle sale, held on the 2nd July, 1854, were: – cows, from £9. to £21.; heifers, from £13. to £16.; bullocks per pair, £23.; steers, from £4. 5s. to £9. 12s. 6d.

OTAGO.

In the early part of November, 1854, a ship from Sydney arrived in the port, with 1000 sheep, and about 28 horses on board. The sheep received from the inspector a very high certificate, and they were purchased at 35s. per head on landing. The horses were in fair condition, and were sold at prices, varying from £50. to £60.

The two following quotations from the Otago Witness, give some information in reference to the self-supporting powers of the province. The first was written in September, 1854; the second, about six weeks later; both of them before the results of the then approaching harvest, had been ascertained.

"There exists at the present moment, both in and out of the province, great diversity of opinion, as to whether our last crop of wheat will place us beyond the necessity of importing, and upon the strength of this doubt, a large quantity of flour has been poured into the settlement. Already, some 74 tons have been imported since the 1st January, 1854, and it is probable that upon receipt of advices from this, a farther quantity of from 60 to 80 tons will he sent down from Nelson, in addition to 53 tons now on the voyage from Sydney. These

GRAIN MARKET.

importations must of necessity tend to depress our market, and more particularly so, should it turn out that the wheat now in the province is fully equal to that which we actually require."

The later quotation is as follows: – "We have to notice, with considerable satisfaction, our steadily increasing export of agricultural produce. The Oukaparinga, which sails to-day for Melbourne, takes with her from this settlement, the following cargo –

Oats 2,577 1/2 bushels

Bran 160 bushels

Barley 6 3/4 " "

Potatoes 20 1/2 tons

Wheat 45 " "

Eggs 40 dozen

"The estimated value of which on board, at Port Chalmers, amounts to £1328. 16s. 8d. Were the visits of small craft to our port more frequent, and more regular, it would be a great advantage to our agricultural population, as well as to shippers of produce."

No accounts of the last harvest at Otago, or of the confirmation by the provincial council of the proposed new regulations, affecting the sale of waste lauds, have hitherto reached England.

On the completion of the seventh year of the existence of this settlement, the local govern-

OTAGO.

ment published some statistics, contrasting the state of the province at that period with its state at the close of the first year of the settlement of Dunedin.

It appears that at the close of the first year of the settlement of Otago, March 31, 1849, there was a population of 745 souls within the Otago block, of whom 426 were males, and 319 females; there are now within the whole province, exclusive of Maories, 2,557 souls; 1,408 of whom are males, 1,149 females – showing a slight improvement in the balance of the sexes.

The extent of land in crop in 1849 was only 42 acres, chiefly in gardens ; this has increased to 3,168; of which 1,077 acres were in wheat; 728 oats; 9 1/2 barley; 276 3/4 potatoes; 37 3/4 turnips; 274 1/2 fallow; 711 3/4 pasture and hay; 52 in garden ground; and 331 1/4 fenced, but not cultivated; there are also 13,578 1/4 acres of land uncultivated; but the most remarkable increase has been in the quantity of stock. In 1849 there were 35 horses, 375 horned cattle, 2,430 sheep, and 50 goats (exclusive of the districts north of Port Chalmers); there are now 435 horses, 6,511 horned cattle, 58,902 sheep, and 251 goats.

The most striking feature in connection with

PROSPECTS OF 1855.

these contrasted statistics is, that whilst in seven years the population has increased from immigration and natural causes at the rate of twenty per cent, per annum, the increase of cultivation and stock have been at a far higher rate; but, notwithstanding this circumstance, the price of farm produce and live stock has risen upwards of 100 per cent. over the value in 1852. The increase of wealth, therefore, to the individual settlers must be great. The relative amounts of imports and exports of the two periods are stated; but, whilst in 1849 the exports were nil, the estimated export of wool alone for the year 1855 is £11,000. and there is every probability of a considerable export of farm produce.

23 From the Australian and New Zealand Gazette, January, 1855.

24 See Chapter XV. for proposed new land regulations for Otago.

25 £5000, not £15,000, is probably the correct sum.

CHAPTER VIII. CANTERBURY.

CHAPTER VIII.

CANTERBURY. 26

THE Emigrant landing in Canterbury, with preconceived ideas of the beauty and variety of the scenery and climate of New Zealand, derived from highly-coloured descriptions of the most fertile and picturesque districts of the northern island, will certainly be disappointed with the aspect of the country on his arrival. But when the impression of monotony, which may at first be caused by the vast expanse of level country, of which Canterbury is chiefly composed, has passed away, the stranger will find no reason to repent of having fixed upon this settlement as the scene of his future career. Making due allowance for the inconveniences arising from the want of timber for fuel, or

WANT OF LABOURERS.

other purposes in most parts, and the present extravagantly high rate of wages in every part of the settlement, there is no portion of New Zealand which offers to the intending emigrant greater advantages than he can obtain in Canterbury, whether his intention be to till the land as an agriculturist, or (with a larger capital at his command) to embark in the more lucrative investments of sheep or cattle farming on a large scale. I myself know the Canterbury settlement intimately, and have visited the Wellington and the Nelson settlements. I have also met, and conversed with, colonists from all other parts of New Zealand, some of whom had already tried their fortunes in Canada and in other parts of America, and many had passed some years in Australia; and I can state with confidence, that, – setting aside the probability of pecuniary success, in which Canterbury is at least equal to any other settlement, – there is no colony in the world where an English family will find a greater amount of agreeable society, and the comforts usual in a rural life in England, combined with such an agreeable and healthy climate, as this settlement affords. Every portion of New Zealand has lately suffered much from the want of a sufficiently

CANTERBURY.

numerous labouring population; and in this respect, owing to the great facilities enjoyed by the labouring classes in the acquisition and cheap cultivation of their own land, the employers of labour in Canterbury have lately suffered more than those of other parts of New Zealand. To remedy this deficiency, an agent, Mr. Harman, has been despatched from the colony, for the purpose of granting assisted passages, for persons of the labouring classes, from England to the Canterbury settlement. The following description of the settlement has recently been issued by Mr. Harman from his office, 32, Charing Cross, London: –

"INFORMATION RESPECTING CANTERBURY, NEW ZEALAND.

"March, 1855.

"The province of Canterbury, bounded on the north and south by the provinces of Nelson and Otago, comprises that portion of the Middle Island of New Zealand situate between the 43rd and 45th parallels of south latitude. Throughout the whole of its length, a chain of very lofty mountains, covered many of them with perpetual snow, runs parallel to the coasts from north-east to south-west, and interposes an almost insuperable barrier to communication between the two sides of the island. Of the country west of the mountains but little is known; but the fact that the slopes of the great chain run for the most part down to the shore, leaving

RIVERS.

little or no available space between their bases and the sea, has caused this side of the province to remain comparatively unnoticed, and, up to the present time, wholly unoccupied by settlers. On the eastern side, the mountains stand well back from the coast; at the two extremities, however, the lower spurs stretch out towards the sea, and, being connected with the coast by smaller ranges of hills, include within their sweep the country known as the 'Canterbury Plains.'

"The whole district east of the mountains comprises about 4,000,000 acres.

"The Plains – extending from the river Waipara to Timaru, over a distance of about 120 miles (in a direct line) with an average width of 40 miles – are intersected by numerous rivers, varying greatly in size and character; some of them, such as the Waimakariri, the Rakaia, and the Rangitata, having shingle beds more than a mile in width, over which they run in numerous shallow but very rapid streams; while the others, such as the Avon, the Heathcote, and the Cam, are confined between regular banks, or become available for the transport of goods to and from the Plains. The country is very open, and almost flat; it rises slightly towards the south as well as inland, but its surface is hardly broken from north to south by even the slightest undulation of the ground. Coupled with the absence of timber, this peculiarity gives it at first sight a monotonous appearance when compared with the varied scenery of England; but the impression soon wears off, and the absence of all impediments to the transport of goods proves of great assistance to the settler, whether during his first difficulties, or when drawing his pro-

CANTERBURY.

duce for shipment. The soil is for the most part a light loam, resting on gravel, with a substratum of blue clay; much of it is stony, and unfit for cultivation; but its herbage is generally of the finest quality, and admirably adapted for the rearing of sheep and cattle.

"About thirty miles south of the Waipara, Banks' Peninsula, a pile of densely-wooded volcanic hills, juts out into the sea, and breaks the monotony of the coast. Skirting on this, to the north, and extending from the river Ashley to the Halswell, lies the principal agricultural district, averaging about six miles in width, by about twenty in length. It is a deposit for the most part of rich alluvial soil, and, being intersected by the navigable rivers mentioned above, is well adapted for agricultural purposes. It is low and swampy in some parts, but only to a very limited extent, and there appears to be little doubt that it is all easily drainable.

"The population of the country is principally distributed over this district, and engaged in the culture of the soil. It congregates thickly around Christchurch (the capital of the province) and Kaiapoi (a new township on the Cam, rapidly rising into importance), and has already converted what four years ago was an uncultivated waste, into a rich corn-growing district. The little towns themselves, though at present straggling in appearance, have churches, schools, mills, inns, stores, wharves, public offices, and most of the necessary requirements of civilised life, and are growing rapidly in size; farm buildings are springing up in all directions around them, and the roads, where they require it, are being metalled and made generally avail-

HARBOURS.

able for traffic. The port town of Lyttleton is situated in the harbour of Port Victoria, and separated from the Plains by a range of hills in connection with those of Banks' Peninsula. It has a population of about 900 inhabitants, and, like Christchurch, has numerous public buildings, with the important addition, however, amongst these, of a bank and a gaol. The transport of goods from hence to the Plains is carried on by small vessels of 15 to 20 tons, which convey them up the rivers both to Christchurch and Kaiapoi. There is also a communication by means of a bridle track over the hills, but this is only available for those travelling on foot or on horseback. 27

"Besides Port Victoria, there are several excellent harbours in Banks' Peninsula; of these, Akaroa, Port Levy, and Pigeon Bay, are the principal, and have all of them settlements at their heads, that at Akaroa being of considerable size. With the exception of the latter, they have but little land available for agricultural purposes; and being shut off, by the hilly nature of the country, from direct communication with the Plains and the Port, are occupied for the most part by sawyers and persons engaged in pastoral pursuits.

"The great drawback to the Plains is the want of

CANTERBURY.

wood. There is but little available timber in the agricultural district, except in one small patch of bush near Christchurch, and some rather larger near Kaiapoi, and, generally speaking, there is no timber at all, excepting along the base of the hills, and towards the south, below the river Rangitata. Banks' Peninsula, however, can supply the deficiency to an unlimited extent; and the coal which has been discovered cropping out in a spot easily accessible, not more than 35 miles from the capital town, will put any permanent difficulties on the score of fuel out of question.

"Great facilities exist for the purchase of land, whether from the Government or from private individuals. The Government price hitherto has been £3. an acre (except at the extreme north and south, where it was 10s.); but though this has deterred speculators from purchasing, it does not appear to have in any way prevented the acquirement of land by labouring men. There are now very few in the settlement who are not already in possession of land, having paid in most cases £5. or £6. per acre to private owners; and, in addition to this, they very commonly rent from 50 to 100 acres at very low rents (perhaps 5s. per acre), with a right of purchase extending over seven years; and it is astonishing to see how soon they invariably have it under crop. As long as farm produce of all kinds continues to command the present high price in the Australian market, no man can do wrong in turning his hand to agriculture.

"It has been mentioned that the great majority of

STATISTICS.

the population is engaged in agricultural pursuits; it must not, however, be supposed that agriculture is the great business of the settlement. The character of the district has pointed it out as eminently fitted for sheep and cattle farming; and this accordingly is the principal pursuit of the wealthier colonists, and must become eventually the mainstay of the country. Large quantities of sheep and cattle have already been imported from Australia, and from other parts of New Zealand, so that the Plains are becoming rapidly occupied, and are producing by this means both a large pasturage revenue to the Government, 28 and a liberal return to owners for invested capital. Stock of all kinds thrives wonderfully; their average increase is about 100 per cent., and, with the exception of the scab in case of sheep, disease is almost unknown amongst them. They are never housed either winter or summer; and during the ' sou'-westers,' or storms of rain and wind in the winter season, will give but little trouble, as long as they have some kind of protection from the driving rain, such as the bank of a river bed, or the thick cover of the native grass, tohi-tohi, which grows high enough to shelter most effectively even horses and cattle.

"The following census returns (with statistics) taken in March, last year, will enable the reader to form a good idea of the general progress of the settlement since the arrival of the first body of colonists in De-

CANTERBURY.

cember, 1850, and gives the amount of stock of all kinds in the country.

"Gross White Population, 3895; males 2196, females 1699; born in the settlement 565; number of sick and infirm 21. Quantity of land fenced in, 7221 acres; under crop, 2920; in wheat 807; barley 287; oats 802; maize 1; potatoes 364; artificial grass 289; in gardens and orchards 227; other crops 143.

"Stock in the Province. – 596 horses; 20 asses or mules; 6363 head of cattle; 99,245 sheep; 396 goats; 4391 pigs.

"The exports of 1853 (omitting the wool 29 ) consist chiefly of sawn timber and house frames, potatoes, oats and cheese, were valued at £3337.

"The climate of Canterbury is undoubtedly one of the healthiest in the world. It may be described as a mixture of the climates of Italy and England, but neither so warm as the former, nor anything like so cold as the latter. It is windy, except perhaps during the autumn, when the weather is most delightfully calm; but the almost constant prevalence of wind soon passes unnoticed by the settler, and there is no doubt that the wonderful salubrity of the climate, and the brilliant clearness of the atmosphere, are mainly due to this in other respects rather disagreeable peculiarity.

"Before concluding, we must not omit to add a few words on the religious and educational provisions of Canterbury. The Church of England service is per-

RATE OF WAGES.

formed in seven different places every Sunday, much assistance being given gratuitously by some of the clergy; the Wesleyans have also a chapel and minister at Christchurch, and the Presbyterians are taking steps towards building a chapel for themselves. There are Grammar schools both at Christchurch and Lyttleton (where boys can be placed as boarders), and in various parts of the province no less than eight schools for the labouring classes; as population congregates at any particular point, fresh schools are opened, or assistance granted from public funds for the purpose, so that it will generally be the parents' fault if the children are not educated. There are also one or two private schools for young ladies.

"Such is a brief sketch of the settlement of Canterbury, founded by the Canterbury Association. Few colonies have perhaps made a more rapid progress in so short a time; but though much of its success is undoubtedly owing to the energy and spirit of the colonists themselves, it must be admitted that these qualities alone would not have produced the present results. The prosperity of the settlement is mainly owing to the judicious selection of the site by Captain Thomas, to the skilful administration of its affairs in its infancy by Mr. Godley, and to the steady and disinterested support of the members of the Canterbury Association in England, who spared neither time nor money in carrying out their undertaking. Want of labour is the sole drawback under which the colonists are now labouring; and to meet this they have set apart considerable funds

CANTERBURY.

for emigration purposes. Great assistance is offered to the labouring classes by means of assisted passages to the settlement, and it would be difficult to select a spot where they will be better remunerated for their labour, or where they will find a climate more thoroughly adapted to the English constitution.

"The rate of wages and prices of provisions, &c., in September, 1854, were as follows, the yearly wages being all with board and lodging. Agricultural labourers 7s. a day; working at piece work, the rate was about 12s. a day; carpenters 10s. a day; stockmen £40. per annum; dairymaids £20. to £30. per annum; hut-keepers £35. per annum; shepherds £35. to £50. per annum; maid servants £15. to £25. per annum.

"PROVISIONS: – Flour 35s. to 40s. per 100 lbs.; bread 9d. per 2 lbs.; butter, fresh, 2s. 3d. per lb., (in summer, about 1s. 6d.); butter, salt, 2s. per lb., (in summer, about 1s.); beef 8d. to 9d. per lb.; mutton 8d. to 9d. per lb.; oats 8s. 6d. to 9s. per bushel; firewood 30s. per cord."

Information respecting assisted passages and the settlement, generally, can be obtained at the Canterbury Emigration Office, 32. Charing Cross, London, by application to Mr. Harman, the Emigration Agent.

The remarks which follow have also been recently published by a colonist from Canterbury, who is now in England. The want of timber, to which the latter paragraphs refer, will probably be remedied now that steam communica-

THE CLIMATE.

tion along the coast between all the settlements of New Zealand has become a matter of almost weekly occurrence.

"The spring is mild, not unlike a spring in England. The summer is warm, with much bright weather, a moderate amount of rain, and occasional gales of wind from the north-west or north-east, which are very disagreeable. During autumn, the finest weather prevails, and towards its close, slight frosts occur with unpleasant high winds from the south-west. The winter, viz. from the l5th of May to the l5th of August, is characterized by fine days, frequent frosty nights and mornings, with an occasional gale from the south-west, accompanied by heavy rain, and sometimes by a few falls of snow which disappear in a few hours. The sea breeze from the north-east sets in about 10 a.m., freshens towards sunset, and is succeeded by a light and calm land breeze. The north-west wind is warm and dry, occasionally too hot, but succeeded by a pleasant south-wester.

"The soil and climate of Canterbury are represented as particularly favourable to the growth of every species of European grain and fruit. Potatoes yielding from seven to fifteen tons the acre, without manure; wheat, and barley, and oats producing never less than twenty bushels the acre, and where the land has been carefully prepared, twice that quantity, and even more. The cheese manufactured here is considered very fine, while the beef and mutton are unsurpassed. Ewes yield 105

CANTERBURY.

per cent. of lambs; the small fine-woolled wether weighing 60 lbs. The weight of wool on ewes, averages 3 1/2 lbs.; and the fleece of the pure merino is said to yield 6 1/4 lbs. The plains of Canterbury may be regarded as greatly deficient in available timber; parties travelling, are obliged to keep close to the banks of rivers to avail themselves of the immense quantities of drift wood lying about; and an additional inconvenience results from the paucity of timber in the want of shelter during the prevalence of strong winds in summer and winter. A forest of 200 acres within three miles of Christchurch, is the only wood procurable for eight miles. In the Oxford district on the western side of the Plains, there is an abundance of wood, as there is also further to the south, near to and upon the hills. Indeed, when the population becomes more dense, and there are greater facilities for transport, the wooded parts will be amply sufficient for the supply of the settlement."

Although New Zealand has long been celebrated as a flax producing country, yet, from the difficulty of getting a sufficient number of labourers to prepare large quantities of it for exportation to the European markets, very little New Zealand flax has found its way to this side of the world. The colonists of Canterbury, and of Nelson, however, appear to have been successful in some recent attempts at the preparation of the flax previous to its exportation.

FLAX.

The following is from the Canterbury Standard of the 22nd February, 1855: –

"We believe that we have it in our power to congratulate the colonists of Canterbury and New Zealand at large, on the satisfactory solution, by one of our own settlers, of a difficulty which has hitherto occupied the attention of many able men, namely, an easy means of separating the glutinous matter from the fibre of the common flax (phormium tenax), which will, no doubt, render it an important article of commerce. We are informed that the process is both simple and effective, that the fibre of the plant is not injured in the slightest degree, so that the most delicate fabrics can be manufactured from it, and what also is of paramount importance as regards the coarser fabrics for canvas, cordage, &c., it will take tar as readily as Russian flax. The discovery is considered so perfectly satisfactory and conclusive, that we are informed an establishment for carrying on the business on an extensive scale is being formed."

Nelson boasts an indefatigable advocate for the flax-trade in Mr. Natrass, from whose letter to the Examiner, the following extracts are transcribed: –

"At the request of Captain Gibbs, formerly of the Ann steamer, when last in Nelson, I furnished him with samples of New Zealand flax (counterparts of which I have by me), as produced by my mode of operation, he at the time promising to write to me on the subject on his arrival in England; and I now beg to send you extracts of a letter to me from a mercantile house in

CANTERBURY.

London, into whose hands he placed the samples, for the information of the very liberal encouragers and enterprising supporters of persevering industry and research, in the colony generally, and this settlement in particular: –

"'On the return of my friend, Captain Gibbs, from your part of the globe, he has placed in my hands, sundry samples of fibre, string, and cord, which I have examined, and, I believe, that if you are inclined to ship to this, you will realize very excellent profits. I would recommend you to ship the fibre and tow, and send by every vessel, twenty to forty tons, valuing (at ninety days' sight) for the lower qualities at the rate of 10l. to 14l. a ton, on account, and for the better sort, 18l. to 20l. * * I am certain that, if once a regular trade is established, and pains taken to send it in a good sound state, very great results may ensue, and your profits will be considerable.'"

The reader of local descriptions of any colony or settlement, whether in New Zealand or elsewhere, can hardly fail to notice the very triumphant tone generally employed by the writers, when speaking of the particular locality in which the description is published. This may be no less true of Canterbury, than of other settlements. It is certainly true, that Canterbury, owing to the very great share of public attention it obtained during its early organization, has undergone, – both from the public

LABOURING SETTLER'S LETTER.

journals and in private discussions respecting its career, – from the time of its origin as a colony, up to the present hour, a more severe ordeal, than any other hitherto established colony: and it has stood the ordeal well.

The following letter from a labouring man in the settlement, will probably not be so encouraging to the employers as to the labouring class of emigrants, of whose assistance, the settlement is now so much in need. But it will, at all events, prove to persons who have hitherto objected to Canterbury, as a "class settlement," in which the interest of the wealthier emigrants has been better cared for, than that of their more humble companions; that the labourers in Canterbury enjoy fully an equal chance of bettering their fortunes, with those whose circumstances have hitherto appeared more favourable.

"Port Lyttleton, Canterbury, June 4th, 1854.

"DEAR FRIENDS, – I am happy to say my health has been very good; never so well. I do think there is one bad thing belonging to me, and that is, my clothes are all getting too small for me; I never was so lusty in my life before, and my wife has had her health very good. I do think New Zealand is the finest country in the world for health. It is a nice climate, and the land is very good, the crops are fine but the farmers are in want of labouring men; there is not enough

CANTERBURY.

to get the harvest in in time. The prices for labour, are these: – wheat reaping, 35s. per acre; and mowing barley or oats, and sheafing them, £1. 5s. per acre. Day work for harvest men, almost what they like to ask. The labouring men that came out here first, have got land of their own, and they don't care about much work. But I must tell you, I have not got any land yet. I am still in service. I entered into my situation on 16th December, 1852, from then to 16th December, 1853, me and my wife received £40. the first year; then my master asked me and my wife to stop another year with him, though we did not want to do so; but he bid me £60., but that did not do; he then offered me £70., and I have a little milking to do, and he gives me 2s. 6d. per week for that, so, altogether, I shall have about £80. this year. I thought I would have one more year with him, then I think I shall be comfortable. I do not regret coming out here, for if I was in England again, and knew the state of New Zealand, I would sacrifice everything but I would come. I have no doubt if we stop another year we could get £100. If I get up in the morning about six o'clock I reckon of getting done by six at night. You understand, me and my wife have everything found us, so much as soap to wash our clothes with; so we have nothing to find but our clothes, so I think you will all agree with me that I have nothing to repent of by coming out here. I do not work about half so hard as I did in England; indeed I work as I please. No one says anything to me about my work; I do as I please, and set myself to what work I please

LABOURER'S LETTER.

and you that know anything about farming would think it very strange to see the labouring men come in the field to harvest work at seven or eight o'clock in the morning, and if they work till six o'clock at night they earn 15s. or 18s. per day; and if they do their work bad their master don't dare to say anything to them, for if they did, they would leave him to do it himself, and there is but very few labouring men come out now, as the Canterbury Company have done with it; but to any of my old friends I would say, don't stop in England to be in distress. I mean all that have been used to farming work, for it is but little use for men to come if they have been used to other employment; but I do think for farming men there is no place like New Zealand for health and everything."

After some further observations on the scarcity of wood, &c., the writer continues –

"It is the way for every one to speak well of their own, and I think no colony ever went on so fast as this. They have chartered several vessels of wool this year for England, and it is not four years' old yet, and we do expect the colony will go on very fast. The price of wheat is now 10s. per bushel, and barley 8s.; oats, 7s.; beef, 7d. per lb., and mutton about the same. Clothing is very dear. Some people in England have spoken about earthquakes in New Zealand, and that is very true, for I found of one, and that was very light. It shakes the earth, but it don't last more than one minute, and I never heard that any one ever got any injury from it yet. So now I must con-

CANTERBURY.

clude with my love to all. Write and tell me all the news you can. Fare you well.

"JOHN WILLIS."

Another writer, who signs himself J. W. Wilkinson, and dates his letter, "Lower Lincoln Road, Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand, Sept. 12, 1854," addressing the Editor of the Australian and New Zealand Gazette, writes as follows: –

"The average yield of grain on the properly cultivated land is from forty-five to fifty bushels per acre, and of a quality very superior to anything I have seen in England. In this small community two newspapers are supported; several philosophic, choral, horticultural, and other societies are established. We have also our Agricultural Society; the first show was last October, and some very fine cattle were exhibited this year. A ploughing match will be added, and already there are twenty teams entered. One great advantage in this settlement is the ease with which the land is brought into cultivation. There is little that takes more than two days to clear an acre. Instead of having to chop away tremendous forests, and then to grope about amongst the stumps for years after it is what is called cleared; which is very much the case in other colonies: – we have here only to burn off the grass, and then chop off the flax bunches, and it is ready for the plough. The only thing wanted here is more hands. Such has been the success that every labourer has now his own land to look after, being almost independent of the man of capital."

PROBABLE WAGES.

In the Chapter on "Assisted Emigration" will be found the regulations issued by Mr. Harman, respecting assisted passages for labouring persons and domestic servants to Canterbury.

Mr. Harman, writing to me on the 5th of May, 1855, respecting the probable present rate of wages in the settlement, tells me –

"I think it necessary to mention that all the latest accounts which I have received lead me to believe that the scale of wages as mentioned in the circular [already quoted] are below the mark. I imagine that 10s. per day for agricultural labourers is at the present time the probable rate; but, at the same time, I am sending labour as fast as I can, so that I confidently expect at the end of this year we shall have reduced the expense of hired labour of all kinds to a reasonable standard.

"I have now despatched equivalent to 230 adults (being: about 280 persons), the sexes being as nearly as possible equal.

"I shall send off about 100 more adults next month, and about the same number again in August. It is hardly possible that such an accession to the labour of the settlement can be received without a very sensible effect being speedily produced on the rate of wages."

The Lyttelton Times also, for the 20th of December, 1854, in mentioning the visit of the Zingari steamer to the port, says: –

"The news from Melbourne gives hopes of

CANTERBURY.

a speedy and abundant supply of labour from that quarter. The Zingari, which made her appearance in our harbour the other day, is only, as we understand, the precursor of a considerable communication between Port Phillip and the southern provinces of New Zealand."

There is now a regular communication of steam between Canterbury and other portions of New Zealand; in addition to which, at least one small steamer, and probably more, is exclusively occupied in traffic between Port Lyttelton, the quay at Christchurch, and the numerous depots for wool and pastoral produce on the coast, which are accessible by the stock-owners stationed in the interior.

I may draw attention in this place to some extracts from a speech delivered by Mr. Godley in Canterbury, in December, 1852, which are given towards the conclusion of this volume; 30 and, as a proof that his sanguine expectations have not been disappointed since that time, I quote the following passages from the Lyttelton Times of the 16th December, 1854, the fourth anniversary of the Canterbury settlement: –

"This day, the fourth anniversary of the landing of

SUMMARY FOR 1854.

the first Canterbury settlers on the shores of New Zealand, finds this settlement in a state of prosperity which justifies the most sanguine expectations of its founders. Although within the last year the population of the province has not received any large additions from abroad, yet the cultivation and the homesteads which have spread over the whole country give a greater appearance of stability to the progress of the settlement than any large importation of new arrivals could have afforded. Many schemes have been talked of, and dropped for want of labour, which were probably premature at the time of their conception, and which will be carried out more safely and successfully when the wants and capabilities of the settlement are more thoroughly understood. In a financial point of view, the province is in a flourishing condition. Upwards of £22,000. are in the Provincial Treasury, and we can now see our way to the completion of the long-desired object of the colonists – good land communication between the Port and the Plains. An agent has been sent to England to carry out a scheme of regular immigration into the settlement, a chief feature in which is a plan for affording assistance to those in the colony who have made an independence for themselves, and are anxious to bring out their friends and relations to share their prosperity, and co-operate with them in their future operations. Several local ordinances have been passed by the Provincial Council, which have been long needed, and which are now beginning to work satisfactorily. The export of wool will this year [1855] reach a value of

CANTERBURY.

upwards of £25,000. 31 And the harvest, after supplying the local market, promises to yield a considerable surplus, for which a ready sale will be found in the neighbouring Australian colonies. Hopes are entertained, and they appear to be well founded, that a sufficient supply of labour to gather in the harvest will arrive from Melbourne before the immigration from England can be expected to commence."

By the Canterbury Government Gazette, of the 14th March, 1855, the balance in the Provincial Treasury on the 31st December, 1854, is stated at £22,715. 19s. 2d.

Some information as to the price of Government lands in Canterbury will be found in Chapter XV.; but an emigrant will probably find it more advantageous to purchase from private individuals land suited to his purpose, even as high as £5. or £6. an acre, rather than embark in a larger quantity at a cheaper rate, on the speculation that, as the settlement progresses, his land must also increase in value.

Such frequent allusion has been made in other portions of this book to the grazing districts north and south of Canterbury, connect-

PASTORAL PROSPECTS.

ing it with the best districts annexed to the Nelson and to the Otago territory, that I have not thought it necessary in this chapter to call attention to them, further than to mention that the intending stock-owner can hardly do better than make Canterbury his head-quarters, while seeking for a profitable investment of his capital, in either a sheep run, a cattle station, or in the more interesting, because less monotonous, occupation of dairy farming.

26 The reader, interested in the Canterbury settlement, will gain much information from a little work by Mr. Paul, a resident colonist in Canterbury, entitled, "Some Account of the Canterbury Settlement, New Zealand, by the Rev. R. B. Paul, M.A., Commissary of the Bishop of New Zealand, and late Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. London: Rivingtons, 1854.''

27 The Provincial Council of Canterbury have lately taken measures to secure communication by a steam vessel between the Port town and the Plains, and it is probable that the steamer chartered by them has already performed many weekly journeys.

28 The revenue from this source alone for the present year will be about £4000.

29 The value of wool exported in March, 1854, may be estimated at about £12,000. – See p. 214,

30 See Chapter XV.

31 This estimate exceeds, by £13,000., the estimate of the value of the wool exported in March, 1854, as given in Mr. Harman's Circular.

CHAPTER IX. THE PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS...

CHAPTER IX.

THE PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS OF NEW ZEALAND – SHEEP FARMING. – CATTLE FARMING. – DAIRY FARMING. – HORSE BREEDING. – PRICES OF STOCK.

BY far the larger portion of the occupations of colonists in New Zealand arise, in some measure, from the productions of the soil. These may be either in the form of garden or farm tillage, or in the pursuits consequent upon the depasturing of sheep and cattle to supply the markets with wool and provisions for export, in addition to the meat consumed in the colony itself.

Of the several means of investment arising from these sources, the most important, both from the annual value exported, and also from the large profits resulting in proportion to the capital embarked, are those of sheep-farming. Cattle-farming, and dairy-farming, are also extensively carried on, but the latter is not so general as the former two. Pastoral pursuits cannot, of course, be entered upon by every class of settlers to so great an extent as those of tillage, to which almost all colonists who are

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

not entirely confined by business to the limits of the towns, devote some portion of their time. But, as all classes alike are interested in the benefits to their colony resulting from a large export trade; I have thought it best to place first in the order of arrangement, some description of the different branches of pastoral life in New Zealand; reserving that of agriculture, and other rural occupations, for a separate chapter.

The climate of New Zealand is so suitable for the depasturing of all kinds of cattle, that cows, sheep, and horses thrive at all seasons of the year without any support from artificial food or grasses. Of course, however, their condition is greatly improved by the cultivation of English grasses for their fodder, and horses in hard work require corn, as in England, to keep them in good condition. In Canada, it is necessary to provide food and house-room for all farm animals during the entire winter; but, in New Zealand, shelter is scarcely ever necessary for cattle, and even for saddle and cart horses in daily work, the stables are frequently built with one side open to the air, and the horses which are accustomed at most times to roam at large, are found to

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

thrive better in these buildings than when completely enclosed.

The most profitable pastoral occupations are sheep-farming for the exportation of wool; cattle-farming for supplying the colonists with butcher's meat, and also with draught bullocks, as well as young breeding stock; and also dairy-farming. For the latter pursuit, the great demand for cheese in Australia – whose climate is generally too hot for cheese-making – opens a constant market, in addition to the profits arising from the high price obtained in New Zealand itself for milch cows, and heifers ready to be broken in for milking. 32

SHEEP FARMING.

A full description of the management of a sheep-station is not necessary in these pages. I shall, however, presently quote some passages from a most excellent pamphlet published in 1851, by Mr. Frederick Weld, 33 a gentleman who, out of a small capital invested eight or ten years ago in sheep, is now deriving a very considerable income from his flocks in various parts of New Zealand.

I may mention here that catarrh, the most destructive of all diseases among sheep in Australia, has hitherto never been known in New Zealand.

It may not, perhaps, be very clear to persons in England how sheep-keeping in the colonies becomes generally so profitable to graziers. When, however, it is remembered that it is not a high rate of increase for a flock of sheep to double its number every three years, and that, at this rate, the produce of 1000 ewes would at the end of twelve years amount to 16,000 head – producing more than £100. of cash profit annually for every 1000 sheep, besides the increase in the flock – it will not

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

appear surprising that such large fortunes have been made, and still result, from this mode of investing capital.

The chief annual outlay on a sheep run is the wages and provision for the men, and not more than 2d. a year as the average expense for the keep of each sheep. In addition to the current expenses, there are the drays and necessary teams for supplying the station with provisions, and for carrying down the wool after the shearing season, to the ports for shipment. The shearing of the sheep is generally done by contract; a number of extra hands being engaged for the purpose, at so much per 100 sheep shorn – their rations, in addition to their pay, being provided for the shearers. Wool sheds must also be erected for shearing and storing away the wool; and, occasionally an entire flock requires dipping to cure it from scab and other diseases. But, notwithstanding all these outgoings, the expenses are not heavily felt when distributed over the entire annual cost of a large flock, and, unless some unforeseen accident or disease overtake the flock, the profits are very great in comparison with the trouble incurred in getting the wool to market.

SHEEP FARMING.

The only limit to the numbers of a flock is the extent of pasturage possessed by the owner, and also the increased risk of loss from disease or other casualties, incurred by keeping on the same establishment a very great number of animals, whose lives are of course but an uncertain capital to depend upon.

There are now in Australia in more than one locality, flocks numbering upwards of 100,000 sheep belonging to a single owner. The largest flock in New Zealand at the present time is that of Messrs. Clifford and Weld, in the Middle Island, which does not exceed 30,000 head. And, from the much more limited extent of the pasturage allowed by the Government Regulations in New Zealand, to be leased to one individual, 34 than is the case in Australia, it is not probable that there ever will be flocks of a greater size than this, until the natural grasses of the country have been improved by cultivation – so as to render the "runs" capable of supporting a larger number of sheep per acre, than the present wild grazing land will admit of.

In New Zealand, as has long been the case in Australia, almost all the land known to be

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

available for pastoral purposes 35 has already been let out by the Government for leases averaging from 7 to 14 years – so that a person now emigrating, with the intention of embarking his capital in sheep or cattle-farming would have to buy a pasturage or "run," as it is called, probably with the stock upon it, for the remainder of the present occupier's lease from Government – paying a considerable premium for the good-will of the tenure. However, if desirable, a portion of the flock could he immediately disposed of, in case the whole cost of the "run," with the stock, were too great an investment for the intending purchaser. The increased price of a station thus stocked, therefore, with the "improvements" upon it, would not necessitate a very much greater eventual outlay than the beginner would have incurred by taking up an unoccupied pasturage for himself, and bringing it into a condition fit for the management of a large flock.

The necessary building for the residence of the stock-owner himself and his men, together with the garden, paddocks, &c., and the sheds

SHEEP FARMING.

for shearing and preparing the wool, are all included in the sale of a run under the general name of "Improvements."

By far the largest extent of pasturage in New Zealand is in the Middle Island. In fact, almost the whole available district from Nelson down to Canterbury, and again from Canterbury to Otago, is occupied by pastoral holders of land with their flocks. Of this extent of country only a very small portion is fully stocked – some portions, capable of depasturing 20 or 30,000 sheep, having only been leased out during the last two or three years, so that many years must elapse before the present flocks in New Zealand have increased sufficiently to occupy the various "runs," over which they are now scattered, to the full extent which the country is capable of supporting; but upon these, as upon all other points relating to sheep-farming, the reader cannot do better than consult Mr. Weld's little pamphlet, to which I have already referred.

It would be of little use in these pages to explain the Pasturage Regulations in full; especially as they are not in all parts of New Zealand exactly the same, and have probably been altered a little since the meeting of the

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

General Council, June, 1854; but I may give some idea of the cost of pasturage by stating that the rent for a tract of wild land, estimated as capable of feeding 20,000 sheep for a lease of fourteen years, averages not more than £l00. a year, a less sum than this being paid in the earlier years of the tenure. This standard, however, does not apply to certain parts of the country under local regulations. One head of neat cattle or breeding mares are counted as equivalent to six sheep depastured on a run, so that 100 cows or oxen would be charged the same price as 600 sheep for their annual pasturage. It should be noticed that, – in addition to the fact, that a large portion of the country is already occupied by sheep or cattle-stations, which, of course, leaves less unallotted land for new comers, – the pastoral regulations would not permit a very large extent of unoccupied country to be taken up by one person, unless he were possessed of flocks in proportion to the extent of country applied for. This is a very just regulation, preventing the monopoly of large tracts of land by persons without sufficient stock in their possession to enable them at once to depasture, and improve the lands they apply for. The largest

PROFITS OF SHEEP FARMING.

tract of pasturage which can be leased by the

same stock-owner, is a tract estimated as capable of supporting 20,000 sheep in its wild unimproved condition; and the smallest, one adapted to 5000 sheep. The average cost of the pasturage of each sheep is not considered to amount to more than 2d. a year, and about 1s. for horned cattle: so that the rent – one of the heaviest expenses in stock-keeping in England – becomes the least important outlay of graziers in New Zealand.

Respecting the average profits of a sheep station, Mr. Weld makes the following obser-vations: – "As will easily be imagined, on no point have I been asked more questions than with regard to the probable profits of sheep farming; and certainly no question can possibly be more difficult to answer with any degree of accuracy. So much depends on the breed of sheep, so much on good management and good fortune, so much on the nature of the 'run,' the state of the markets (ever varying in a new country,) and on the number of the stock, that it really amounts almost to an impossibility to give anything like a decided opinion, or an average statement of results. And indeed it will probably remain so, until

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

the increase of stock and population, and the introduction of something like a settled system in the management of waste lands, shall have combined to approach things to a permanent level. I might adduce numerous instances of large profits having been made by sheep and cattle farming in New Zealand, and I should find it difficult to name many in which the result has been unfavourable, even under peculiar and disadvantageous circumstances. One thing I consider I am safe in saying, that with a flock of any magnitude, say 2000 sheep, the wool, after the first year, ought in ordinary cases, fully to cover the expenses, leaving the increase, and the fat male stock as clear profit; whilst, as the flocks increase in numbers, the wool, of course, gives a greater proportion of profit. I believe that I am speaking within bounds, when I say that this is the case on all, or most of the sheep stations I am acquainted with on the Middle Island. At this rate, a better investment could scarcely be made, even taking the minimum possible price of stock as that to be realised. I might easily, by taking any special case, shew its probable profits, but by so doing, I am not aware that I could convey a mere useful or correct general idea than I have already done."

COST OF A SHEEP STATION.

After expressing his opinion "that a flock of from 800 to 1000 breeding ewes is required to commence a self-supporting station on anything like an adequate scale," which at the rate of 30s. for each ewe, the price in the Canterbury district, in January, 1854, would require a capital of from £1500. to £1800. 36 to start with; Mr. Weld continues: –

"It must not. however, be supposed from what I have said, that a man cannot commence sheep farming with a less capital than that which I have indicated above. I mean, that above a thousand pounds or somewhat less is

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

the minimum capital with which a man in the majority of eases may without rashness, count upon establishing a sheep station on a secure and self-supporting footing. But at the same time, I am aware that he who brings his own labour and experience into the concern, and thus materially reduces its expenses, or who invests in sheep as an adjunct to a farm or other establishment, may of course commence with less capital, and a small number * * * *

"As a general rule, I should advise persons, whose capital will not allow them to obtain about 800 ewes, and at the same time, reserve something in hand against contingencies, rather to place their sheep with some respectable sheep-owner, paying part of the produce for their keep and care, than to risk running into difficulties, by setting up a station on their own account, without sufficient capital. This method has the further advantage for a young colonist, that, during the period whilst his flock is attaining the size requisite to enable him to set up on his own account, he may be living inexpensively at a station, and be employed in acquiring that experience of pastoral matters which he will need when he takes the management of his own flock."

SHEPHERDING.

"The general management of sheep in New Zealand approaches nearest to that pursued in the hill districts of Great Britain, and is very different from that of New South Wales. In New Zealand the golden rule is to harass the flock as little as possible. Accustom them as much as you can to respect certain boundaries, but within those limits do not needlessly disturb them. The result of this system is superior condition, and less liability to disease, whilst it enables you to lessen the expense of herding by enlarging the numbers of a flock."

In Australia a flock of 1000 sheep is considered enough for one shepherd to look after. Many more may run in one flock in New Zealand. In fact, in some parts, the sheep are left entirely to themselves for several months at a time, the shepherd merely going occasionally to see that the flock has not wandered beyond the owner's boundaries.

I may here explain the above-mentioned custom of placing out capital under the care of an experienced manager, to be invested, in sheep, or occasionally in cattle also. This is a well-known arrangement in the colonies, under the name of "keeping stock on terms," and is a very general, and, I think, the most advisable

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

plan for persons who cannot conveniently reside on a station of their own at a distance from a town. Many such persons farm their own land and occupy themselves in the management of their household, or in any other business they may have – leading, in fact, a country life as in England – while any capital they can spare is entrusted for investment to some stock-owner having a good extent of pasturage. In such a case, a certain per-centage of the profits only is paid to the manager of the sheep, and the remainder, both of the wool and of the increase, as well as the original flock, continues to be the property of the person who supplies the capital for investment. By these means a small original investment of money may, in the course of a few years, increase to a considerable flock of sheep; producing in addition an annual income from the sale of the wool. This is, with most colonists, a far more profitable mode of employing capital than agriculture alone, which, owing to the high price of labour, seldom remunerates a farmer of land for the sale of the produce, unless he has great experience, or is able to save the great expense of paid labour by working on the farm himself, assisted by his family.

PRICES CURRENT OF WOOL, 1854.

The following extract from the Prices Current of colonial wool for November, 1854, will enable the reader to compare the relative value of New Zealand wool with that of other colonies.

(From the Circular of Messrs. Bradbury and Cook, November, 1854.)

PRICES CURRENT OF COLONIAL WOOL.

"The third series of public sales of colonial wool commenced on the 19th ultimo, and closed this day. The catalogues have contained the following quantities: –

Bales.

Bales.

Sydney

14,662

Egyptian

235

Port Phillip and

Turkey and Syrian

369

Portland Bay

20,519

Buenos Ayres

647

Van Diemen's

Peruvian

1050

Land

3,482

Russian

787

Adelaide

4,853

Spanish

538

Cape

6,882

Mogadore and Barbary

545

New Zealand

1,960

Swan River

212

German

119

– – –

Italian

155

52,570

Zegai

206

East India

2,870

Sundries

497

Total

55,440

Total

5048

For the first day or two of this series, there was no perceptible variation in the prices as compared with the closing rates of last sales.

For the better class of Sydney wool, there has been throughout, a very active demand, and prices of this

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

may be quoted a shade higher; but on middle and inferior descriptions, there has been little or no variation from last sales' prices.

Of Port Phillip and Van Diemen's Land, there has been an exceedingly small proportion of a superior class; and in the middle and inferior flocks, very little that was suitable for combing purposes.

Several marks of Adelaide have been sold which equal any we have seen from this colony; and we have a general improvement, both in breed and in condition in which the wool is brought to market.

Cape wool has been in good demand, and the closing rates of sales have been fully maintained, and for some descriptions exceeded.

SYDNEY. – Scoured lamb, 2s. 1 1/2d. to 2s. 7d.; scoured fleece, 1s. 9d. to 2s. 4 1/2d.; lamb, 1s. 8d. to 2s. 2d.; superior flocks, 1s. 9 1/2d. to 2s. 4 1/2d.; average flocks, 1s. 7d, to 1s. 9d.; inferior flocks, 1s. 3d. to 1s. 6 1/2d.; pieces and locks, 1s. 2d. to 1s. 5d.; skin, 1s. 1d. to 1s. 4 1/2d.; unwashed, 10d. to 1s.

PORT PHILLIP AND PORTLAND BAY. – Scoured lamb, 2s. 2 1/2d. to 2s. 5 1/2d.; scoured fleece, 1s. 8d. to 2s. 6d.; lamb, ls. 7d. to 2s. 2d.; superior flocks, 1s. 9d. to 2s. 2d.; average flocks, 1s. 7d. to 1s. 8 1/2d.; inferior flocks, 1s. 3 1/2d. to 1s. 6 1/2d.; pieces and locks, 1s. 2 1/2d. to 1s. 7d.; skin, 1d. to 1s. 6 1/2d.; unwashed, 10 1/2d. to 1s. 2d.

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND. – Scoured lamb, 1s. 11 1/2d. to 2s. 4 1/2d.; scoured fleece, 1s. 7 1/2d. to 2s.; lamb, 1s. 6d. to 2s. 4 1/2d.; superior flocks, 1s. 8d. to 1s. 11 1/2d.; average flocks, 1s. 6d. to 1s. 7 1/2d.; inferior flocks, 1s. 2 1/2d. to 1s. 5 1/2d.; pieces and locks, 1s. 0 1/2d., to 1s. 3 1/3d.; skin 1s. 2d. to 1s. 6 1/2d.; unwashed, 10d. to 1s. 0 1/2d.

PRICES CURRENT OF WOOL, 1854.

ADELAIDE. – Scoured lamb, 1s. 6d. to 2s. 1d.; scoured fleece, 1s. 6d. to 2s.; lamb, 1s. 4d. to 2s. 1d.; superior flocks, 1s. 4 1/2d. to 1s. 9 1/3d.; average flocks, 1s. 3 1/2d. to 1s. 4d.; inferior flocks, 1s. 1 1/2d. to 1s. 3d.; pieces and locks, 1s. 1d. to 1s. 2 1/2d.; skin, 1s. 1d. to 1s. 3d.; unwashed, 8d. to 1s.

CAPE. – Scoured fleece, 1s. 3d. to 1s. 6 1/2d.; lamb, 1s. 2d. to 1s. 7 1/2d.; superior flocks, 1s. 4 1/2d. to 1s. 7d.; average flocks, 1s. 2d. to 1s. 4d.; inferior flocks, 1s. to 1s. 1 1/2d.; pieces and locks, 9d. to 1s.; unwashed, 7 1/2d. to 11d.

SWAN RIVER. – Scoured fleece, 1s. 7d. to 1s. 8 1/2d.; lamb, 1s. 2 1/2d., to 1s. 7 1/2d.; superior flocks, 1s. 5d. to 1s. 7d.; average flocks, 1s. 3 1/2d. to 1s. 4 1/2d.; inferior flocks, 1s., 2d. to 1s. 3d.; pieces and locks, 1s. to 1s. 2 1/2d.; unwashed, 10d. to 1s. 1d.

NEW ZEALAND. – Scoured fleece, 1s. 8 1/2d. to 1s. 9 1/2d.; lamb, 1s. 5d. to 1s. 11d.; superior flocks, 1s. 0 1/2d. to 1s. 10d.; average flocks, 1s. 5d. to 1s. 6d.; inferior flocks, 1s. 2 1/2d. to 1s. 4 1/2d.; pieces and locks, 1s. 1d. to 1s. 3 1/2d.; skin, 11 1/2d. to 1s. 3 1/2d.; unwashed, 10 1/2d. to 1s. 2d.

In addition to the butcher's market for meat, which, at the present average price of from 7d. to 9d. per pound, offers a very profitable remuneration to the owners of cattle stations in New Zealand, a very remunerative price is frequently obtained for young oxen to be broken in for draught, and also for the best breeding heifers for dairies. The hides and tallow, also, in colonies more than sufficiently supplied with

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

meat, which at present is not the case in any part of New Zealand, form a very important item as an article of export resulting from a well managed herd of cattle. On this subject Mr. Weld observes: "There is decidedly less risk in cattle than in sheep breeding. The stock is less subject to disease and requires far less care and expence. On the other hand the profits are more uncertain; and I am inclined to think, (even when a system of salting down shall be established) will fall somewhat short of sheep farming. I am not, however, sure but that for a small capitalist I should rather recommend cattle. I do not approve of mixed stations of sheep and cattle. They do not do well on the same ground, and one or other is generally neglected."

I may mention here a matter connected with cattle farming, which is not strictly in the routine of the management of a cattle station. All kinds of stock imported from Australia or Van Diemen's Land are in a low condition on landing in New Zealand, and have suffered much from the voyage. These cattle, if re-sold by the buyer soon after they have been purchased from ship-board, frequently yield a rapid increase of price; for if a person have the opportunity of buying a cargo of young cattle direct from a vessel, and can turn them out on good pasture

DAIRY FARMING.

for a few weeks, he may in their improved condition, sell them again, whether as breeding heifers, or for the butchers' market, at a very considerable premium upon the original cost. Many of the colonists who reached New Zealand with very small capital have in a few months made large sums of money by successful speculations of this kind.

Dairy farming, though very profitable on all the stations that have been established, cannot be carried on to so great an extent as sheep farming, wool being an article of universal demand in Europe while dairy produce cannot be exported further than Australia. Large quantities of cheese were exported from several parts of New Zealand to Australia, in the years 1852, 1853, at an average price of one shilling a pound for all the cheese manufactured in the dairy, the expenses of carriage from the dairy stations to the shipping ports, being paid by the purchaser. The price of New Zealand cheese now averages about 1s. 6d. per lb.

The climate of Australia is, in many parts, too hot for making good cheese; but in all parts of New Zealand the nights are sufficiently cool to enable the dairy owners to carry on this important manufacture for export. Whaling ships

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

have for years drawn their supplies of cheese and potatoes from the scattered settlements on the shores of New Zealand.

The cheeses made at Otago and at Port Cooper and other parts of the present Canterbury settlement, have long been celebrated in New Zealand even before the two settlements were colonised by emigrants direct from England. The latest retail price for cheese at either of these places was from 1s. 4d. to 1s. 6d. per pound. Butter from 1s. 6d. to 2s. per pound, according to the season of the year. The sale of fresh milk, which is a very profitable business near towns, is of course limited to the populous neighbourhoods alone.

Dairy farming requires more constant attention than either sheep or cattle farming. In fact the life at a dairy station very much resembles the same mode of life at a large dairy farm in England. There is however this advantage in favour of New Zealand, that an extent of pasturage capable of supporting a large herd, of say 80 or 100 cows, can be leased at an almost nominal rent from the Government – and the herd requires nothing further than the wild grasses of the country for their support during the entire year.

HORSE BREEDING.

A dairy is, undoubtedly, a more interesting, and, generally, a more prettily situated homestead than a sheep station, which ought not to be placed near swampy districts, and where there is low underwood to catch the fleeces of the sheep; while cows thrive and fatten on the rank vegetation in marshy places and in the neighbourhood of woods. Such places, indeed, in summer afford some of the best wild pasture for horned cattle.

Horse breeding has not, that I am aware of, been attempted on a large scale in any part of New Zealand, although, at most of the settlements, a few very good horses are foaled every year. The Honourable Henry Petre, at the Hutt Valley, near Wellington, has, probably, the largest and most valuable stud of horses in New Zealand. Most of them are of the produce of Riddlesworth and AEther, two thorough-bred stallions, imported by Mr. Petre from England, in 1843. There are now in all parts of New Zealand a few very good horses and mares, chiefly adapted to saddle and light harness work, which have been imported both from England and Australia, and also a few breeding mares from the Cape of Good Hope, belonging to Mr. Petre; but good draught horses are scarce and

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

costly. The average price of a riding horse is as much as £30. in any of the settlements, although horses recently exported are often sold on landing from a sea voyage for a good deal less than this. Stout draught horses are very expensive in all parts of the country, a good cart horse being everywhere worth nearly £50. The settlements of Wellington and Auckland have probably a larger and cheaper supply of horses than other parts of New Zealand, but it costs £5. or £6., at least, to transport a horse from one settlement to another by sea, in addition to the risk attending his passage.

A newly arrived colonist should not be in a hurry to purchase animals of any kind, without some inquiry as to the current prices on his arrival. He may, perhaps, by watching for an opportunity, obtain a good horse at a cheaper rate than the prices I have mentioned, but the latest accounts show that live stock of all kinds have rather increased than diminished in value during the last twelve months.

For ploughing, bullocks are more generally used than horses; they are also occasionally used in teams for very heavy work, such as carting timber over soft swampy ground, but for long journeys horses are generally preferred,

COST OF EXPORTING HORSES.

from the greater speed with which they travel. Bullocks, when travelling, always forage for themselves, and at night when turned loose to pick their food, often wander for a long distance, thus causing great delay in the commencement of the next day's labour. Horses, on the other hand, are generally tethered at night, if wanted early in the morning, and in addition to the grass they can gather, are fed with oats, or, more often, American maize, which however is not so good for them as oats.

The expense incurred in exporting horses from England, even if of superior breeds, would now, I should think, hardly answer as a speculation to breed from in New Zealand, as, in addition to the stock already in the country, many good horses can be imported from Van Diemen's Land and Australia. There is, indeed, but little demand for first-rate horses in the Colonies; there are no opportunities of making use of such horses as our best hunters, and no one but a person of considerable fortune and leisure would think it worth while to train horses for racing. The most serviceable sort of horse is a good hardy hack, for performing journeys up and down from remote stations, and stout farm horses for agricultural and cart work generally.

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

Of horse breeding in New Zealand, Mr. Weld observes: "Horses thrive well on a sheep station. A certain number are, of course, necessary, and, consequently, it is no extra expense to keep a few well selected breeding mares, besides the work horses. They are little or no trouble, disease amongst them being almost unknown. They run at large the whole year round, and their sleek coats and high condition bear another testimony to the superiority of our climate: but though every stock-master will take a pride in his little herd of horses, and will find them as profitable as they are interesting and ornamental, I should be inclined to consider it speculative for a man to invest his whole capital in horse breeding. Every thing points out New Zealand as eminently adapted for the purpose; but if the demand for horses should fall far short of the supply, they cannot be boiled down like sheep or salted like cattle, and, consequently, might become almost valueless at some future period, unless, indeed, the Indian market be found available for an outlet."

Cart horses for heavy work, would, I should say, be the most marketable stock to breed from at the present time, as, even in Australia,

HARNESS.

stout draught horses fetch very high prices, owing to the great amount of traffic caused by the gold diggings; £60., £80., and even £100. not being unusual prices in Melbourne for cart horses that in England would be dear at £40. So great, indeed, is now the demand in Australia for cart horses, that they are not likely to be cheap in New Zealand for some years to come, the cost of exporting a horse from New Zealand to Melbourne or Sydney not being more than £6. or £8.

It will well repay a colonist, on leaving England, to carry with him saddles for his own use, and side-saddles for any females of his party, as well as a complete set of shaft and leading harness for farm work. All articles of this kind are very expensive in the colonies, and not nearly so good as well made English saddlery. The whole may be stowed in small compass in a good water-tight barrel, and the spare spaces filled with oats, which will thus be ready at hand to feed the horses when first the harness is required for use.

The average prices of stock in the different parts of New Zealand cannot be given with accuracy; as their value depends much on the locality where they are purchased. The price of

PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS.

stock on a remote station being, of course, considerably less than in the neighbourhood of the towns. A well broken cow for milking generally sells for nearly £20. Young cattle just landed from ship board, and heifers in an unbroken state, average from £8. to £12. Working bullocks, from £12. to £20. a piece. In some places, near cattle stations, young unbroken bullocks, which soon become fit for yoking, are sold very much cheaper than this. A newly arrived colonist must expect to have to pay as much as £30. for a good saddle horse, though he perhaps may be able to procure one more cheaply by waiting for an auction sale of a lot of horses.

Breeding ewes in June, 1854, were selling for 30s. a piece, and rams for from £3. up to £8. or £9. for the best imported Australian merino stock.

Most emigrant vessels take out a cow; and frequently the captain will give water and a free passage to one of the passenger's cows if in full milk. This may be worth considering, if you have the opportunity of taking out a good cow in your own vessel, without incurring much expense in her journey to the shipping port. You will have to provide a shed to shelter her

AN EMIGRANT'S COW.

during the voyage, which will cost about £5., and also to supply her with food.

I should not recommend the exportation of any other breeding stock from England, unless by special advice from a friend residing in the colony, as it is now generally found, that animals as good as those imported, could have been purchased in the colony for as little as they have cost the importer; taking into consideration the expenses of the voyage and insurance of the animal's life, in addition to its actual value in England. 37

32 A friend tells me that the expression "breaking in" heifers requires explanation. Any one who has visited a colony must be aware that cattle, when allowed to run wild without enclosures, soon become very difficult to reclaim. A young cow when first milked is generally "baled up," that is, her head is secured between upright posts so that she can raise or lower it, but cannot turn round to use her horns. One of her hind legs is then stretched out behind her, and secured by a rope, and then an attempt is made to milk her. A pint or less of milk is frequently considered a satisfactory result of the first attempt to milk an "unbroken heifer." When a cow has submitted to this process a few times without much struggling, she is considered to be "well broken in to milk."

33 "Hints to intending Sheep Farmers in New Zealand," by Frederick A. Weld, Esq. Stanford: Charing Cross, 1851.

34 See page 224.

35 See an allusion to a new tract of country supposed to be available for grazing purposes, near the Nelson and Canterbury districts at page 119.

36 Recent information shews that sheep are even dearer now (1855) than they were twelve months ago. A lot of 1000 sheep sold in Otago, last November, were purchased for 35s. per head. The price for breeding ewes in the same settlement two years ago, did not average 22s. per head. In the older settlements in the north, the price for sheep has also very greatly increased of late. The cost of transporting sheep from one part of New Zealand to another by sea would not average, allowing for deaths during the voyage, more than 5s. or 6s. per head for the number landed alive; it is not therefore probable at the present time, that sheep are selling for less than 25s. per head in any part of the colony. Possibly, by buying a "run" with the sheep and improvements on it, the whole flock of 3000 or 4000 sheep might be purchased in one lot at a considerable reduction on the above prices, but in making an estimate of costs beforehand, it is always the safest to take the current market value as the standard of valuation.

37 For a genuine account of life in the "bush," or parts remote from a town, on cattle or sheep stations, either in Australia or New Zealand, I know no book so perfectly truthful, and conveying so good an idea of the mode of life, as well as the feelings and impressions of squatters themselves as, Haygarth's Bush Life in Australia. Murray's Home and Colonial Library, 1848. Bush Life in Australia, by Henry William Haygarth, price 2s. 6d.

CHAPTER X. OF OCCUPATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE POSSESSION OF LAND...

CHAPTER X.

OF OCCUPATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE POSSESSION OF LAND, AND OF AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS GENERALLY IN NEW ZEALAND. – DOMESTIC LIVE STOCK.

BESIDES the occupations already mentioned, there is in a colonist's life a never-failing source of interest in the improvement of his land, and also in the gradual erection of houses and other necessary out-buildings as his establishment increases.

Houses are mostly built of wood in New Zealand, chiefly on account of the rapidity with which they can be constructed, and partly also from the fear of earthquakes. More substantial and warmer dwellings are also built of earth sods, strengthened by wooden framework, and thickly coated within and outside with plaster, tempered so as to resist the rain. "Cob" also is much used in buildings. "Cob" is well known among the cottagers in Devonshire and the south counties of England, it is composed of a mixture of clay and grass, kneaded together and dried in the sun. It is very durable and dry, and is supposed in New Zealand to be less liable to injury from the occasional slight shocks

HOUSES.

of earthquakes, than buildings made with brick or stone. 38

There are, in all parts of the country, men who make it their business to erect houses by contract. They generally do their work substantially and well; and far more cheaply than most emigrants could perform the same labour for themselves.

To take out ready built houses from England is not advisable; great expense is incurred in carrying them both before and after the voyage; and moreover, from having been built on a fixed plan they cannot be easily added to or altered after their erection.

It would be difficult to give an estimate of the expense of building a house in New Zealand, so much depends upon the requirements and the means which the future occupant can afford to expend upon his dwelling alone. The cost of erecting a three-roomed house on a sheep or cattle station, where timber can be easily procured, containing a good sized day room, a sleeping room, and a kitchen where the men or any travellers who may be passing the night at the station occasionally sleep, is not often more than £40. In the farming districts

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

and near the towns, the size and expense of the houses varies according to the taste and inclination of the owners. Some of the houses being at first merely carcases, with only one or two of the rooms completely finished, while others are very prettily constructed with wooden verandahs and gardens around them.

A very comfortable house built in Canterbury in 1851, when the price of day labour was about 4s. 6d. a day, cost £150. in building. This house was built of cob by contract, and the frame-work was supplied by a carpenter. It contained three small rooms on the ground floor, and two above stairs under the roof, and was built so that at any future time more rooms could be added if desirable, without interfering with the parts already complete. Of course in the erection of such a house, a person with a little skill or experience, and the help of his own labourers or family, might save a great part of the expense of hired labour.

It should be borne in mind, that when a house is once built on the occupant's own land, he is free from all taxes and expenses upon it for the rest of his life, so that a small additional outlay in making a permanent comfortable dwelling is not to be regretted.

SOD OUTBUILDINGS.

The best plan for persons of small means, is to commence with a portion of their house as they intend it to be when finished. The outside walls and the roof may be erected at first, and the remaining portions, such as the floors and partitions, can be added at any future time.

For temporary purposes substantial sheds that will last a year or two may be built of sods. Excellent tough sods may be obtained almost every where, as the surface of the ground which has never before been broken up is densely matted with roots and fibres, and when cut like peat into blocks dries into firm compact masses. Buildings of this material, with only a few supporting beams of wood, may be very quickly erected near the dwelling house for sleeping rooms or kitchens, &c. and also for stables, pigsties, and other outbuildings. The cost of such buildings depends entirely upon the time it takes to erect them, as the materials are ready at hand, and no tools are required for the purpose beyond the spade used in cutting the sods from the surface of the ground.

After the erection of the dwelling house (the cost of which, as I have said, varies with the taste and inclination of the proprietor,) the expenses of agriculture in New Zealand are the same to colonists of all ranks; a great advan-

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

tage of course being enjoyed by persons accustomed to labour in a farm with their own hands, in the saving of hired labour, which to all land cultivators in colonies is very expensive.

It must not be overlooked, that a farm in England, with its neat buildings and well drained and neatly fenced fields, is a very different piece of property from a portion of wild land of the same extent in New Zealand, which requires to have a house erected upon it, and the land broken up and fenced in, before it can even be occupied previous to cultivation. This is a point little thought of by intending emigrants when making their estimate of expenditure necessary for their establishment in a colony, on land which they mean to purchase and reside upon.

The land may be purchased and rented cheaply; not certainly in a good situation, at a very low rate, but still at a much lower average than at home; and, after the first purchase, there are absolutely no expenses attached to the possessor of landed property – no tithes, no taxes, poor rates, or any incumbrance whatsoever. But it is a work of time and expense where labour is scarce and dear, to bring even a portion of 100 acres (the usual size of a rural section) of waste land into a state of good cultivation.

PRICE OF LAND.

The actual cost of the land per acre varies according to its position, proximity to towns, easy accessibility by road, or by a river; as well as its fertility, and the expense likely to be incurred in cultivating it, and for this last reason alone it is advisable for the colonist to wait until he has acquired some little experience in the colony before purchasing land at all.

Close to the towns the land is generally high priced; £10. to £20. an acre, or in some cases very much more than this, being frequently demanded for small portions of land, but, in districts less advantageous in locality though fully equal in fertility, £3. or £4. an acre or even as low as £l. is not an unusual price for sections of from ten to fifty acres in extent. In fact, occasionally, sections of land are sold far below the price originally paid by the vendor. To persons accustomed to judge of the value of land in colonies, by what we hear in England of the very low price per acre charged for Government land in unsettled districts in Canada, the prices of land in New Zealand may appear very high. But, when the superiority of the climate and the small outlay which is necessary for felling timber and clearing the greater part of the arable land in New Zealand, compared with

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

the amount of labour and time required to bring a portion of the Back Woods of America into cultivation, is taken into account, I do not think there will be found to be a large balance in favour of the Canadian average prices. I have heard many experienced settlers in New Zealand, who have bought forest land cheaply and cleared it with their own labour, say that they would rather pay £3. or £4. an acre for land clear of heavy timber or swamps requiring deep drainage, than as low as five shillings an acre for land less advantageously placed, and requiring a long space of time for labour in clearing and drainage before it can be prepared for a crop.

Most persons renting land in a colony are desirous of obtaining, with their lease, the right of purchasing the land outright at the end of seven or ten years tenure, at a valuation made at the time of purchase. It is easy to obtain land on such terms, at a rental varying from 5s. or 10s. an acre during the first two or three years of occupation up to £1. or upwards during the latter part of the term, when the land will probably be improved by cultivation and also more valuable in its position owing to the increase of population around it.

A very common error of newly arrived emi-

FERTILITY OF SOIL.

grants is, that of embarking, immediately after their arrival, in the purchase of more land than they can cultivate, under the supposition that landed property must always maintain its value. A few months experience, however, will serve to convince a stranger, of the hazard of hampering himself with a larger quantity of land than his capital can render immediately available. It is I think generally better economy to purchase a piece of land partly enclosed, and already cleared of weeds and obstacles to cultivation, – in which case a tolerably correct judgment can be formed of the actual money value of the soil – than to take a tract of waste ground which requires much preliminary labour, before it is ready for a crop. The soil is very fertile, and all European fruits and vegetables thrive well. It is perhaps possible from the genial climate and richness of the soil of New Zealand, to have a better garden there than in any other part of the world, and a proof of this is, that many of the productions of the Cape colony in Africa flourish in good situations, while the peach, the currant and the gooseberry, for which the climate of Australia is generally too hot, arrive in New Zealand at a state of perfection equal to that of our best English gardens.

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

Hitherto the cultivation of the vine has not been much attended to, but at Akaroa in the Middle Island, a few of the French settlers have small vineyards with grapes of a very good quality; and the soil around Auckland in the North Island is said to be very well adapted for the growth of all kinds of continental grapes. I may mention here that it is now quite needless to convey from England to New Zealand any seeds either of plants, grain or grasses, since in all parts of the country, gardens have long been established. The only plants worth taking out in Ward's glass cases would be timber trees, and perhaps good varieties of pears and apples. I have seen in Major Richmond's garden at Nelson at least twelve varieties of plums and cherries. There are also large orchards, but such a tree as the ash for tool making, or the oak of England would be much prized if it ever became large enough to be used as timber. Oaks appear to be indigenous at the Cape of Good Hope, but those I have seen in Australia were growing in sandy soil and of miserable appearance. The oak is not a native of New Zealand, and of those planted by visitors to the country, I have not heard of one more than six feet high.

A long list of the indigenous trees of New

TIMBER.

Zealand, together with their uses and relative strength and durability as compared with the English oak, is given in Wakefield's Guide Book, and also at the end of one of Bishop Selwyn's Journals for 1847. The country near Auckland affords some splendid timber for spars, and many have been used in the Royal Navy. There are also some very beautiful woods for ornamental purposes, and abundance of wood fit for fencing is found in all forests. There appears however to be a want of such Firs as make the best deal planking used in England. Many of the varieties of wood used by the settlers warp much, from not being well seasoned when fitted in the frame-work of the houses, and no native planking is so much valued by carpenters as the Baltic or Canada fir timber imported from England.

There are however many varieties of the pine tribe which afford excellent timber for building purposes, and the sawing and preparation of the timber gives employment to a great number of sawyers, who generally locate themselves on the shores of the numerous bays, skirted and overhung by vast forests, from whence the timber is transported by water to the various settlements.

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

During July, 1854, the men engaged in cutting a pathway through the woods near Akaroa, to communicate with Port Lyttelton, came upon a Totara Pine 37 feet in circumference. This tree has been left standing as a specimen of the enormous growth of a native forest tree.

As I have already observed, agriculture, although to a certain extent engaged in by all classes of colonists, – for there are scarce any, whether in sheep or cattle stations, or in other districts near the town, who have not gardens and a paddock or two attached to their dwelling – is not in general nearly so remunerative an occupation as that of pasturage. The latter pursuit can be entered upon by persons with almost no previous experience in the management of stock, provided their capital is sufficient to commence upon a station adequate to the speedy repayment of its own expenses. The cultivation of land on the other hand, requires not only considerable experience, (though less than is necessary in England, owing to the great fertility of the soil and advantageous seasons of New Zealand,) but in addition, a constant outlay is incurred in the necessary operations of culture and harvesting the crops.

COST OF AGRICULTURE.

The expenses attending the cultivation of land in New Zealand, are very variable, as in some parts, though not in all, the land requires drainage before it can be entered upon. A considerable time and expenditure is also sometimes necessary in clearing away the rank vegetation encumbering the rich unbroken soil. The cost also varies a little in different parts of the country. In the older settlements, where labour and other appliances are more plentiful, the expenses of cultivation are less, though the price of the land is proportionately dearer, than in more recent localities.

The general expenses of farming in New Zealand, as well as the mode of culture, after the erection of the house and enclosure of the land, and the purchase of the draught oxen or horses, and the necessary implements, which may generally be bought in the colony when required, – are not very different from those of England; with the proviso that all such employments as sowing, threshing and destroying the weeds must he performed by hand-labour instead of machinery, and that labour is not always easy to procure when a number of hands are required at a time, as in harvesting, or other work in which the saving

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

of time is a great object. It may also be noticed that hitherto no manure is ever used in preparing for a crop in New Zealand, so that a great expense is thus avoided in the labour of culture. The cattle also require no provision for the winter, stall feeding for the butcher never being thought of; so that potatoes, carrots and grain, together with hay and clover for fodder are almost the only varieties of crops.

The foregoing estimates may appear very favourable indeed to the tiller of the soil in New Zealand; it must however be remembered that the disposal of a crop is not always a matter of certainty. So many of the colonists supply their own establishments with vegetables and grain, that a market for farm produce in the settlements, excepting for oats, is not always easy, and in the export trade of grain, Australia and Van Diemen's Land as well as the American traders enter into competition with New Zealand.

It is, in fact, almost universally admitted that for a large capitalist, agriculture is not nearly so profitable a mode of investing his money as pastoral pursuits, although for labouring men who can thus turn their own labour into profit without the expenditure of money, tillage of the

PRICE OF WORK BY THE PIECE.

soil is a very advantageous occupation. A person of small means, and possessed of land of his own, may rely upon maintaining his family inexpensively, producing his own provisions and living rent free, and in fact almost without any money outlay. But he must not expect to add to his original capital if agriculture be his sole investment. In fact all classes of emigrants, at the present day, whatever be their occupations, must be content with the prospect of living comfortably in independence and freedom from anxiety, in New Zealand, as their home, but without much hope of making a rapid fortune and returning to spend it in England.

A general idea of the cost of farming operations in New Zealand may be more clearly conveyed by mentioning the prices paid for different kinds of labour by the piece, and by some general estimates of the expense of preparing different sorts of land, than by any more lengthy detail.

The most usual mode of enclosing a new section is by a "ditch and bank fence," the ditch being made six feet wide at the top, and three feet deep; a compact bank being built with the soil excavated from the ditch, and the turf sods removed from the surface of the

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

ground forming a coping. This forms a very fair enclosure for a time, but, except in tenacious soil is not very durable, the edges of the ditch being liable to fall in, and the bank being easily leaped over or pushed down by cattle, which in the colonies are much more in the habit of roaming and breaking out from enclosures than at home.

The usual price of ditch and bank fence was, in 1851 and 1852, from 12s. to 14s. per chain of 22 yards, in average ground. In very light soil the price was rather less than this. In some very wet peaty soil, in which there were many trunks of old trees and stout roots of marsh vegetation, I have paid as much as £l. a chain for the ditch and bank; and the men said they were not well paid, as they were constantly in the wet, and could make but slow progress with their work.

Post and rail fences cost about 8s. a chain in putting up, and the price of the wood varies according to the distance it has been conveyed.

At the time when these prices were almost universal – the £1. a chain for ditching being almost an exceptional price – the average day's labour was from 4s. 6d. to 5s. 6d. a day. A day's labour is not longer than from 8 in the morn-

WIRE FENCES.

ing till 6 or 7 p.m.; the best workmen usually prefer working by the piece to stipulating for a "day's work for a day's pay." The present price (1855) of labour is nearly double what it was a year or two since, as much as 7s. a day being now perhaps a fair average for the whole of New Zealand; but the efforts already made and still continuing to be made in every settlement to introduce labourers into the country, must have a tendency to reduce the enormous rate of wages demanded during the early part of last year's harvest. No colonist, in fact, would think of hiring labourers to dig ditches or make his fences at an average cost of 26s. to 30s. for 22 feet of ditch and bank.

For small enclosures wire fencing is found very useful, as it is easily and quickly put together; but it is also often broken down, as cattle rush against it without seeing it. 39 With either rail or wire fencing, though they are more useful as a barrier against cattle than an earth-bank, the advantage of the ditch for drainage

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

is lost. The expenses of fencing are, of course, larger in proportion for a small enclosure than for a large one. Thorn hedges have been planted in all parts of the country, and grow very rapidly. These of course make excellent fences; but in tilling new ground the colonist must obtain some protection for his crops, which can be more rapidly erected.

Ploughing is frequently done by contract, about 30s. an acre being the average price charged, when the land is ready for the plough, but where there are shrubs, or the ground is worn into hollows, or very wet, it will require some preparation before the plough can be used. A fair estimate for ploughing twice over and harrowing after sowing was, in 1853, about £3. 5s. an acre.

A great portion of the land may at once be ploughed up for a crop, after lighting the dry grass on the surface and burning away the vegetation, as much as a passing fire can destroy it; but some portions require great labour in grubbing out the roots of a shrub called the tutu, 40 which sends out very large tough roots,

PRICES OF GRAIN.

and hinders the progress of the plough. Such land, after cultivation, is very fertile; but it sometimes costs £4. or £5. an acre to clear it effectually from such bushes.

I have paid as much as £10. an acre for digging wet land which could not be cleared by any other means; and I have heard that in forest or "bush" land, where there were large trees to fell, and large roots to grub out and clear away, the land has cost about £40. an acre before the crop was in the ground. Perhaps a fair average would be to say that on a 10-acre field, on new land, exclusive of the fences, the cost of cultivation previous to sowing the seed, would be about £5 an acre.

The land which costs the most in preparation, such as timbered land, or rich moist land, growing flax or "raupo," (a weed like a bulrush, which generally grows on peaty soil,) is generally the most fertile; and I have been told by settlers on small allotments of the cleared "bush" land, that the crops soon repay the preliminary additional expense in cultivation.

The prices of grain for seed or for use fluctuates much, according to the importation of manufactured flour from other colonies. A fair average – at the present time in all the colonies,

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

would be 9s. to 11s. a bushel for wheat, and from 7s. to 9s. for oats; and although it is possible that the great expense lately attending all farming operations may have been reduced since the recent importations of labour, yet it is very probable that the unaltered demand for forage of all kinds in Australia may have maintained the price of corn crops as high as in July, 1852.

During the latter part of 1852 and the commencement of 1853, the price of labour in Canterbury and the neighbouring settlements was very much lower than at the present time, yet there was a ready sale for wheat at 8s. a bushel, and oats at the same price as wheat. This was owing to the want of mills to grind wheat; but there are now in Canterbury, and in all other settlements, plenty of wind and water-mills. The price of wheat and oats per bushel was in 1854, although generally higher than in previous years, nearly the same in all parts of New Zealand. The usual quantity sown per acre of wheat is about two bushels, and from 40 to 60 bushels an acre has frequently been produced as the second crop of wheat, 50 bushels, certainly, not being a high average.

A fair yield of potatoes is about seven tons to the acre in land newly cultivated.

LABOUR.

Potatoes are sold from £3. to £4. a ton; though, occasionally, in scarce times, much dearer. 41 They are sometimes used to feed horses and cattle.

A safe standard, by which to estimate the expense of all operations on a farm, would be to take the average cost of a day's labour as nearly 6s. a day, even allowing for the recent large importations of labour; and the cost of ploughing an acre by contract at about £l. 15s. The value of the crops, as well as the probabilities of a favourable sale, fluctuate so much in New Zealand, that any estimate of the probable profits of a farm computed while in England, would be liable to mislead a colonist in making his plans for farming before visiting the country.

I may repeat in this place a fact, which holds good in all young colonies, not only in matters affecting the Government, but also in details for the instruction and guidance of emigrants, viz. that many months often elapse between the time when any communication is sent home and the period when the reply can reach the

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

colony, – often as much as ten or twelve months. From such causes permanent disappointments and failures have frequently arisen; a state of affairs, which was described with perfect candour when the statement was originally made, having materially altered its aspect by the return of the communication. This especially applies to the fluctuating value of farm and agricultural produce, as well as to the labour market, by which, indeed, all the expenses and operations of a colonial agriculturalist must be regulated.

Persons possessing teams for the cultivation of their own land may often turn them to great advantage by ploughing by contract for those who do not choose to incur the expense of keeping teams of their own. I have known a labouring man, whose steady habits had enabled him to borrow sufficient money to purchase a team of four bullocks and a plough, not only clear off his debt, but gain in addition as much as £70. in one year, by ploughing and carting timber at times when he was not employed upon his own section of twelve acres of land, which he held on a lease of 21 years, with the right of purchase at a valuation.

By such occupations as these, the humbler occupiers of the land are enabled to make a

PIGS.

good income as farmers. And, as they till their land by their own labour, they are enabled successfully to compete in the market against the gentlemen farmers, or larger capitalists, who cannot always obtain labourers for money, or attend to the smaller profits, which experience, and practical acquaintance with tillage, alone can give.

The larger kinds of live stock on farms in New Zealand, have already been noticed. It might be worth while to take out a few pigs of very good breeds from England as they can easily be carried in the vessel with the colonist, and do not require much attention on board ship. A stock of sheep and pigs are always carried on board an emigrant ship, for the use of the cabin table, and the man who has the care of the ship's stock will always for a small fee attend to any other pigs on board the vessel.

Very good stock of all kinds are bred by the Newcastle Agricultural Company in Australia, from whence good cattle and rams can always be procured; but the pigs in New Zealand, especially the domesticated wild stock, which are often captured alive and reclaimed, are gaunt and bony and do not fatten kindly.

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

The wild pigs, as I have already stated, are descended from runaway tame pigs; or from those turned loose from vessels visiting New Zealand. A few of the Berkshire and other good breeds have been introduced into the settlements, but they are sold at a very high rate. Vegetables and other pig-food grows so readily in New Zealand that pig feeding is not at all expensive. A sow likely to litter during the voyage, and a good boar might he taken out with little expense. Plenty of straw for litter can generally be obtained from the barrels of bottled beer and wine used during the voyage.

The passage for a dog to New Zealand costs £5. Dogs must be kept in a kennel for the greater part of the voyage, and captains of vessels do not generally like to carry them. A terrier is I think the most useful dog, as rats are very numerous and troublesome. The wild pigs are becoming rather scarce, as they are easily captured, and sows are frequently destroyed with their whole litters. Pig-hunting is a most ignoble and stupid sport; there are in the country plenty of so-called pig-dogs. Quail are the only game in a wild state, though lately partridges have been introduced, so that there is almost no opportunity for making use of a sporting dog. The

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

wild duck are very plentiful in swamps, but they are now rather wild, and they frequently are found in morasses at such a distance from the solid ground, as to be quite unapproachable by a sportsman. A retriever that will take the water is therefore absolutely necessary for the duck shooter, but there is so little opportunity or indeed inclination for these amusements in most parts of the country, that the expense of taking out a dog is scarcely repaid, unless indeed he be a favourite and taken rather as a companion than for service. There are several very good sporting dogs in the country, which have had numerous progeny, but they are little used for shooting.

Of poultry, the common kind breed very fast and can be purchased every where; they are however very mischievous in gardens, unless properly enclosed. A number of fowls are always carried in the ship's hen coops, and it might be worth while to take a few birds of very good breeds on board; but care must be taken to protect them from the cold, as by the time they reach the cold latitudes they are generally weak, and suffer much from exposure to the weather. By far the greater number of game birds, such as partridges and pheasants, as

AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL LIFE.

well as some fine poultry at different times despatched to New Zealand, have perished on their voyage out through the cold. A few fancy pigeons would also be a pleasing addition to a farmer's out of door live stock.

Bees are now plentiful in all parts of the country, and can be purchased cheaply; a few of the best English hives however would be valuable, as the best sorts would be much better made by an English manufacturer than a colonial carpenter.

38 See notice of earthquakes at Chapter IV.

39 Were I now to return to New Zealand, almost the only article of outfit I should take with me for farm use, would be iron hurdles, sufficient to enclose 50 acres of land, i.e. about 14,000 yards. The hurdles could be packed so as to occupy small space on board ship. Each hurdle when put together being about 6 feet long.

40 This shrub, which resembles Elder, has a dark berry, from which wine is distilled. The young shoots, although very poisonous, are greedily eaten by cattle and sheep, who often die from the effects.

41 Of late potatoes have been sold at Wellington at £12. and were even as high as £23. per ton. It is in fact impossible to give average prices of the colonial produce that will be equally applicable to all districts and every season.

CHAPTER XI. DOMESTIC LIFE IN THE COLONIES.

CHAPTER XI.

DOMESTIC LIFE IN THE COLONIES – INFLUENCE AND OCCUPATIONS OF FEMALES – LADIES' PURSUITS – MEANS OF EDUCATION.

THE open air employments that have been discussed in the preceding chapters, and, in fact, the general occupations of all branches of colonial life, certainly offer to women of all classes less inducement to emigrate than to men, who are naturally fond of riding (the usual mode of travelling), and of out of door exercise. It is not, however, by any means the case that their presence is less required than at home, or that there is no room for them in a colonial establishment. On the contrary, the want of the comforts of home is so strongly felt by almost all settlers, that there are very few who can maintain any separate establishment of their own, who are not desirous of being married, if they had the opportunity; and the happiest homes, and the neatest and best regulated households are, invariably those of married settlers.

DOMESTIC MATTERS.

On first arriving at any station or homestead, it is easy to judge whether or not any female servants form part of the establishment, by the greater air of comfort and cleanliness which their presence almost always insures.

In fact, in new colonies, the presence of females almost always carries with it an influence for good, both in external matters, and also in their far more important influence over the conduct and sobriety of the male population, amongst whom they are living. But it must be confessed, that in general, for some time after their arrival in a colony, the female emigrants do not easily reconcile themselves to the new circumstances around them; and those especially who have been accustomed in England to the assistance of female servants to perform all household offices for them, sometimes find cause to regret, in their new mode of life, the want of many of the enjoyments and the congenial society which they have relinquished.

There is, indeed, felt by all colonists, whether at inns or in private dwellings, a great want of the cheerful and respectful services of those female attendants, who in England are so numerous, but who, in the colonies, so speedily become mistresses of households of their own

SOCIETY.

as to be quite indifferent about remaining in one situation.

Nevertheless most ladies who have emigrated (I speak of the upper classes in England), after the first regrets of separation from their friends are a little abated, soon begin to appreciate the attractions of a mode of life in which there is certainly much to enjoy, and in which but little pecuniary outlay is incurred, while the opportunities of acquiring an independence for their children, as they become versed in colonial matters, are much more numerous than in England. There are now, in all the settlements, of New Zealand, many ladies, living, not only in the towns, and in the rural suburbs within easy reach, but also, some few of them settled with their families on remote dairy farms, or on sheep and cattle stations, "up the country."

There is, moreover, in most colonies, a cheerful interchange of society; and, from the absence of the great distinction of classes, so severely felt by persons in straitened circumstances at home, there is a freedom from formality, and a facility for becoming intimately acquainted with agreeable neighbours, which is not always to be found in longer established countries.

DOMESTIC MATTERS.

I will here quote some passages from a letter written from Canterbury (the newest of the settlements), within eight months after the arrival of the first colonists, which gives a very correct description of the state of life and society near a town in New Zealand. It is dated, "New Zealand, August, 1851," and is as follows: –

" No reasonable man is, or can be, I think, disappointed. I dare say you will be curious to know how we go on from day to day, – pretty much as at home; and I expect you would be surprised to see how very little the reality agrees with the notion formed at home of an early colonial life. There is all the refinement and civilization already of a county town in England. Our dress, manners, and habits, and every thing are the same; shops to supply you with every thing; the butcher and baker calling every morning for orders. On a Sunday, the same observances and general character, as at home; our pretty little temporary church, with the fine tenor bell pealing over the plains, calling the people to the same services and ordinances they attended and loved at home. The service is as well performed, and the organ, with swelling notes, pealing the well known sacred songs of our mother land. Believe me, there is nothing wild or savage (hardly colonial), in our mode of life. The plains are certainly, at first sight, monotonous, but they improve as you know them. The beautiful views, the magnificent range and files of mountains, can hardly be equalled; and the rapid growth of homesteads over the plains, with their neces-

SCHOOLS.

sary accompaniments – plantations, hedgerows, gardens, and trees of every description, which are being planted universally – will so alter the face of the country, that four years hence it will hardly be known, and will effectually do away with any objection on the score of monotony."

A taste for gardening, or the superintendence of a farm, will add much to the enjoyment of women in a colony, whatever be their station in life; and among the better educated of their sex, enjoyment in the exercise of riding, and the accomplishments of drawing and music will be found a great source of pleasure, not only to themselves, but to the society of which they are members.

"Such accomplishments," says Mr. Weld, "as painting and music, far from being out of place in a bark or wooden hut, are invaluable there. At home they are agreeable recreation, but in the bush it is more: for, in moments of gloom and despondency, of vain regrets for the past, or useless longings for the future, the mind is often diverted and aroused from its morbid state by their cheerful and soothing influence."

I will here very briefly allude to the means of educating a young family in New Zealand.

DOMESTIC MATTERS.

As far as concerns mere reading, writing, and religious instruction, for all ranks, there is in every settlement of New Zealand, more than one well conducted school; and beyond this, there are, I know, in Canterbury, as well as in other settlements, several schools for young ladies; and others, under the direction of clergymen who have distinguished themselves in our own Universities, for the education of the sons of the upper classes of the colonists.

The means for educating youths of the age of our University students, and for girls, after they become too old for the usual routine of an ordinary girl school, are at present not easily obtained.

CHAPTER XII. OF THE VOYAGE TO NEW ZEALAND

CHAPTER XII.

OF THE VOYAGE TO NEW ZEALAND – OUTFIT AND PREPARATION FOR COLONIAL LIFE – CONSIDERATIONS PREVIOUS TO EMIGRATING – THE PROFESSIONS IN COLONIES – WHERE TO APPLY ON ARRIVAL – TRANSMISSION OF MONEY.

OF the voyage itself to New Zealand, very little need be said. Most of my readers are aware that it is necessary to traverse 16,000 miles of sea, and takes an average of from 100 to 120 days in its accomplishment. During the voyage, the vessel crosses the equator, when it is very hot; and afterwards enters very high southern latitudes, when there is occasionally ice and snow upon the decks, and, of course, it is exceedingly cold. It is not altogether disagreeable; but at the end of it, the passengers are all glad it is over, and heartily weary of so long a period of indolence and discomfort.

The price of a passage varies somewhat according to the character of the vessel. As a general rule, the first class berths for single passengers are charged about £50. "Intermediate" cabins, which are shared by two persons,

ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS.

and with inferior fare, about £30.; and steerage passengers, about £18. All provisions are included in a first class passage as well as cooking and attendance; a separate charge being made for beer and wine, according to the quantity consumed. Passengers not of the first class, have to cook a part of their provisions, and to attend upon themselves.

A great many things may be carried in one's own cabin by a little management, not only for use during the voyage, but also such property as books and small articles of ornamental furniture to be used after landing. A chest of drawers, made on purpose for cabin use, will hold nearly everything required on the voyage, and is sold by all the outfitters for about £5.; and two or three trunks may be stowed away under the sleeping berth. A good sized tin water can, filled with water before sailing, will be found a great comfort, as the daily supply of water on board is limited, and thus by a little management a good supply can always be kept in the cabin. Three or four dozen bottles of clear spring water, packed in a hamper and stowed so as to be easily got at, will also be a great luxury, as the water from ship tanks has often a disagreeable taste. I would also recommend families to carry a small tea-

DRESS.

pot and kettle, for making one's own tea, and a saucepan for cooking gruel for children or for an invalid, as it is not always easy to procure such articles from the ship's galley. A few pots of jam and some sweet biscuits will often enable a sea-sick person to take a little nourishment, when all other food appears nauseous and distasteful.

A good stout wooden arm chair, which can he bought for 8s. or 10s. is far more serviceable on board than the cabin chairs made to fold up. Seats upon the deck are not always vacant, and one or two such chairs, as I have mentioned, will also be serviceable on shore after landing. In most emigrant ships, one day in the week is allowed for washing clothes, and at these times it is easy to get a few articles washed. This saves the necessity for taking a very large supply of linen for use at sea.

Of other clothing, a good warm suit and a stout great coat, and also good gloves, are needful for the four or five weeks of cold weather during the voyage. And for use in the colony, two or three good suits for wearing in the towns and on other occasions when not engaged in the farm occupations, exactly as in warm weather in England, in addition to a good allowance of rougher clothing for every day wear. Besides the

ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS.

abovementioned, a riding dress and a waterproof over-coat for rainy weather will be very useful. In most parts of the country, a dress suit, as in England, is occasionally needed. A very large stock of wearing apparel will be found rather an incumbrance than an advantage to the possessor. For most persons I should say that enough clothes to last for two years' average wear of spring and summer weather in England, will be found quite a sufficient stock to carry out from home, as more can always be obtained when required.

Persons going to a colony frequently fall into the blunder of imagining that when once arrived at their destination all necessity for cleanliness and respectability of appearance is at an end. The vulgar delusion that, in order to be a colonist in earnest, it is expedient to dress like a drover, and to set aside as unremunerative all ideas of refinement, is now quite out of fashion.

I am quite sure that all who have visited a colony will bear me out in saying, that whether in rural or suburban districts, the attire of all classes of settlers fully equals, in respectability and neatness, that of the inhabitants of any of the country districts of England.

Ladies in New Zealand are very careful and

INTERMEDIATE PASSAGE.

neat in their costume in all parts of the country, quite as much so as at home.

Dances and other parties among the colonists are by no means of rare occurrence, so that, in providing an outfit, it is as well to be a little prepared with suitable dresses for such occasions.

The ground in rainy weather is very soft and muddy, and there is also a good deal of dust in dry weather. Carriages are almost unknown, but few colonists disdain travelling in a cart. However, stout leather boots are the most serviceable and durable for all out of door exercise. All ladies going to a colony should be provided with a side saddle and riding apparel.

A second class, or, as it is called an intermediate passage on board any vessel is bad economy. The cost is much less than the cabin passage, but there are many discomforts. To mention one alone, a great part of the cooking must be performed by the passengers themselves, and many "intermediate" passengers are not made acquainted with what is expected from them until after the vessel has started.

I believe I am correct in saying that, on the whole, the expenditure necessary to make an "intermediate" passage comfortable, unless in

ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS.

case of a large family, is not much below that of a first class fare.

Vessels going to New Zealand often go far south of the Cape of Good Hope, in order to get into the favourable current of the trade winds for the latitude of New Zealand, and then bear up northward for the land. This sometimes causes the ships to enter very cold regions before they reach New Zealand.

It is now quite unnecessary for emigrants to burden themselves with tents, or ready made houses to be erected immediately on landing. In every settlement in New Zealand there are excellent inns, and every accommodation that new comers can desire, at a very reasonable rate. This affords to new comers ample time to make arrangements for the hire of a residence, or for building a house on land they may purchase for themselves.

There appears to be a confused, comfortable sort of notion at home, that any neglected rubbish, of no value in England, might "come in handy" on some unlooked-for opportunity on the other side of the world. I may say, once for all, that really neat and serviceable clothes, as well as all other articles of a good quality of their kind, for general use, are quite as necessary

LEATHER.

in a colony as in England; but that it is perfectly needless to burden oneself on leaving home, with a quantity of goods, on the vague speculation that they may be wanted some day, or, if not wanted, they may be easily sold in the colony. The latter notion almost always proves to be a mistaken one. Most articles required in a colony can be purchased in the colony itself as cheaply as they could be carried from England by emigrants on board the vessel they sail in. I have already referred to the clothes required, but may add, that good strong boots and shoes are not always easily procured, as colonial leather is proverbially bad; it may, therefore, be well to take an extra stock of them from England. The saddles made by Peat, in Bond-street, London, and purposely adapted to the narrow shoulders of Australian horses, are very much admired in New Zealand, as they never chafe the horse's back – a very frequent occurrence with badly fitting saddles. A good stock of clothes, but not too many. A few books – (there are now good reading rooms in all the settlements of New Zealand) – and any really serviceable tools or implements you possess that could not be sold without loss, previous to leav-

ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS.

ing England, I would recommend you to take with you; but, unless under the direction of some friend in the colony, from whom you have received instructions, not any cumbersome agricultural implements, or large pieces of furniture. The freight of bulky goods is now very heavy, and the expenses of transport by sea, and after landing, frequently amount to more than the value of the same articles at an auction sale in the colony. In the case of families, a good supply of crockery should certainly he taken out, not for sale, but for service. As all glass and china ware must be imported from England, it is always expensive to purchase, and a good many pieces are frequently broken in the early unsettled state of the household. Brittle articles are best packed in barrels, which are easily moved by rolling them, and are, therefore, less liable than boxes to be jarred or shaken in moving them about.

Little trifles, that ornament or enliven our houses in England, also give a rough cottage a cheerful look of home; and there is no reason why the same carpet that has done service in England, or a sofa or arm chair (which can be taken to sea in one's own cabin, and will also be

CHEERFUL FITTINGS.

very serviceable on board ship), should not again take their places in the parlour to be erected in New Zealand.

Such notions are not effeminate or ridiculous in a colonist. Indeed, people who imagine they would greatly like "roughing it" in a colony, and, that they would "enjoy the fun" of being in want of many articles in daily use at home, would be both surprised and gratified to find how easily a small wooden or cob-built house in New Zealand may be made to approach the comfortable appearance of the pleasantest English houses, merely by the arrangement of a few little articles of ornament or luxury, with which the good taste of the owner has supplied them.

Upon these grounds, if a lady were hesitating whether to pay the freight for her piano or a chest of drawers, I would decidedly recommend her to prefer the piano. It will afford more gratification and cheerfulness from the associations aroused by its music than can be supplied by more practically useful furniture, for which, after all, it is easy to get a substitute from any skilful colonial carpenter.

I do not mean to exaggerate, or to dwell on such matters to an absurd degree, but I think the reader will not dispute, what I am sure

ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS.

many find to be the case after their arrival in a colony, viz. that it is quite possible to overdo the necessary inconveniences and self-denial of a colonial life, and, that it is not well to endeavour at once to uproot all sympathy with the harmless enjoyments and luxuries which, in imagination, at least, make England so delightful a residence to most of us.

The most frequent question asked by intending colonists is, "What would you recommend us to set about when we get there?" I have endeavoured, in the preceding pages, to give some information on this point; but, one reply to such a question may be, "Are you sure you are doing right in leaving your present home and occupation at all?" If you are comfortable here: I do not mean affluent, but tolerably free from anxiety about your future means of subsistence and independence; I would recommend you to be content with your present position. It does not follow that a change, will, from its mere novelty and contrast to what you have been accustomed to, be therefore either agreeable or advantageous. In leaving England, you undoubtedly break up friendships and associations of long standing, and the mere desire of living in a pleasant climate, and leading, what people are

PROFESSIONS.

too apt to suppose a merry pic-nicking sort of existence, is not of itself, and ought not to be a sufficient inducement to emigrate, in the hope that more substantial advantages may present themselves after your arrival.

No person who has ever enjoyed a life in England would, I think, profess to prefer a colonial life, if he were sufficiently independent to be able to make a selection. But, for those who have, as the saying is, to "make their own way in the world," and for such as, after a fair trial, can find no opening in England for their growing families, and to whom, setting aside the prospect of providing for their children, the freedom from high rents, and the payment of rates and taxes, of which there are none in New Zealand, would, of itself, be a great relief; for such persons, I know no country – and I am not speaking my own opinion alone, when I say, that there is no part of Europe, or of the United States – where so great an admixture of the agreeable society and the civilization of England can be found, combined with such facilities for making money, and living economically, as in the settlements of New Zealand. Of the professions, there are now in all the

ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS.

settlements in New Zealand, as many clergymen as can be remunerated by the church funds of the colony; and there is scarce any part of the islands where a congregation could be assembled, in which weekly service is not performed. Every vessel with emigrants takes out a medical officer, by order of Government; and many have established themselves in the country, where the healthy climate does not afford them much prospect of occupation. And, for the numerous class of land surveyors, engineers, and lawyers, who have gone to New Zealand in the hope of obtaining employment, I am afraid there is not sufficient occupation to remunerate them, if they depend upon their professional employment for a livelihood.

In the early part of the description of Auckland, and in that of the other settlements, I have endeavoured to explain to the reader the changes which sometimes very rapidly occur in the average market prices of any particular locality.

The intending emigrant will, I believe, find such passages worthy of attention; and in the various chapters upon colonial occupations, and the price of land, and of labour, sufficient infor-

WHO TO APPLY TO ON LANDING.

mation, I hope, is afforded to guide him in the preparation for any pursuit in which he may wish to embark.

The selection of his future settlement must depend entirely upon the local connections of the intending colonist, or on any plans he may have formed, which have induced him to choose New Zealand as his future country. For persons altogether undecided on these points, Wellington is the best port to land at. It is the most central of all the New Zealand harbours; and the most recent general news from all other parts of the country may be obtained there.

On landing in any port, the agent of the ship in which the passenger arrived from England, will generally be found ready to give any information in his power, as to where to procure lodgings, &c. And for the purchase of Government land, the agent at the Land office (of which there is one in every settlement) is the best person to apply to, not only on the subject of purchasing or renting land alone, but also on most other points of interest to the newly-arrived emigrant. For information as to the sailing of ships, and for recent news of the New Zealand colonies, the best place to inquire at in

ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS.

London is at Messrs. Young's New Zealand Rooms, 9, Adelphi Terrace, Strand, London.

For matters exclusively relating to Canterbury, the most authentic accounts can be given at the Canterbury Emigration Office, 34, Charing Cross.

Messrs. Henry H. Willis and Co., of 3, Crosby Square, who have established a regular line of New Zealand passenger ships, in addition to one or two small steamers, plying between the different settlements, also readily furnish all information in their power to intending emigrants.

There are several methods by which money may be transmitted to New Zealand. The Union Bank of Australia remits money from England, payable immediately on demand at their Branch Banks in New Zealand, charging one per cent, for transmission.

Messrs. Young and Co. will also grant letters of credit at 30 days' sight on Auckland, Wellington, Nelson, and Canterbury, at par, charging one per cent, for bills drawn on New Plymouth, or Otago alone.

Messrs. Willis and Co. will also give bills at par, drawn on the Provincial Treasurer of Can-

POSTAGE OF LETTERS.

terbury, New Zealand, payable 30 days after sight.

The safest method for an emigrant to carry out specie is, to pay the freight by the vessel in which he sails, and to insure the safe landing of the money in the colony. But this will cost, altogether, nearly 2 1/2 per cent.; and, in case the money be lost, some time must elapse before the insurance can be recovered.

The amended rates of postage of letters and newspapers to the colonies are (October, 1855) as follows:

LETTERS AND NEWSPAPERS FOR THE COLONIES.

POSTAGE OF LETTERS (PREPAID)

POSTAGE OF LETTERS (PREPAID)

Newspapers are charged with a postage of One Penny each, either by means of a postage label affixed thereon, or by payment in money. They may be either stamped or unstamped.

CHAPTER XIII. LABOURING CLASSES. – ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

CHAPTER XIII.

LABOURING CLASSES. – ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

IT may without hesitation be asserted, with respect to the prospects of labouring persons emigrating to New Zealand, that whatever hopes they may entertain, of a speedy independence and comparative affluence to be acquired for themselves in their new country, have a more certain foundation than those of any other emigrant. It is, nevertheless, a well known fact, that however poor his home may be, the English labourer is, of all classes – chiefly from his ignorance as to what he may expect on his arrival – the most reluctant to try his fortune in a new country. Yet a sufficient argument in his favour is, that such establishments as workhouses, poor rates, or settled parishes for claimants for relief, have absolutely no existence in the colonies either of Australia or New Zealand.

In fact, except among the crowds at the gold diggings, where emigrants of all classes have occasionally suffered grievously, I never heard of a person in absolute want of the means of subsistence in any of the colonies.

JOURNEYMEN MECHANICS.

The usual modes of life have been already described, and the most recent current rate of wages in several parts of the country have been mentioned in treating of the different settlements: and, notwithstanding the fluctuations of markets and of the resources at the command of the employers, it may readily be imagined, that, in a country where almost every thing is performed by hand labour, the workman must at all seasons be able to ensure good pay.

Carpenters, smiths, and wheelwrights, and builders' journeymen generally, may rely upon finding plenty of occupation, and liberal wages, not, perhaps, on their arrival a few months hence at so high a rate as during the periods from which I have drawn my averages, but certainly at much higher rates than in England. They will also probably find more certainty of regular employment, because among fewer competitors, than in Australia. For masons alone there is but little employment, as from the fear of earthquakes but very few buildings are constructed of bricks or masonry.

Sawyers, also, find full employment in the numerous forests bordering on the sea coast, and they make large sums by felling timber by contract. This employment however requires some

LABOURING CLASSES.

experience, and is generally followed by a roving class of men, who, when the timber is cleared away in one locality, go off and take up a new abode, wherever they can find employment, either in the same settlement or elsewhere.

Shepherds and stock-keepers wages are high in New Zealand; about £40. a year with house room and rations, being the usual average for a shepherd and his wife on a station; the wife often serving as cook to the whole establishment. £30. a year is about the usual sum for a single man.

The average rate of day labour is now about 7s. a day, and in some parts even higher: however, owing to the rapid importation of labour, this very high rate will, the employers hope, very speedily be reduced. It will probably be a long time before the rate of a day's labour falls below 5s. a day in any part of New Zealand. Many good labourers, by working extra hours at piece work in ditching and trenching land for its first crop, earn much more than they could do by mere day work or at fixed board wages.

In fact one of the earliest complaints of an English labourer after his arrival in the country is, – not that he cannot get work to do – but, that it costs him so dear to get any help in

FEMALE SERVANTS.

cultivating the land he has been able to hire, or perhaps to purchase outright.

For women there is always an opening, as domestic servants, and all may expect soon to be at the head of a household of their own. For this class, I mean females of the rank of labourers who are desirous of an opportunity of marrying comfortably, New Zealand certainly offers less anxious prospect for their future life than England.

It is seldom, indeed, that a young woman, who has emigrated with her family, cares to leave her own household, and to engage herself as a maid servant. When at home she can be of great assistance in carrying on the household affairs, perhaps managing a garden – cooking – milking the cow – and so forth; and of those who are willing to go out to service, the greater number prefer to the ordinary housework of female servants in a colony a situation in a dairy, in which they are frequently allowed to possess a cow or two purchased out of their accumulated wages, as a provision for any future establishment of their own. The owner of the dairy, in case of such an arrangement, makes use of the milk of the cow belonging to his servant, to remunerate him for its keep, and for allowing it to run with his

LABOURING CLASSES.

herd: while the cow and any calves she may bear, being the sole property of the servant, may at any time be sold, or removed from the herd.

Much assistance is now offered to female domestic servants desirous of emigrating, towards their outward voyage to New Zealand; – and their wages and prospects generally are certainly very favourable in all parts of the colony. The whole or a portion of their passage money will be paid out of a fund specially set apart for promoting the emigration of female domestic servants to the Canterbury settlement, as already mentioned in Chapter VIII. – in Mr. Harman's circular.

Some further information on these points, and also with reference to assisted passages for labouring people generally, are given in the remaining portions of this chapter.

ASSISTED EMIGRATION TO THE VARIOUS SETTLEMENTS.

TO become an actual possessor of land in the country which he inhabits, is one of the earliest aspirations of an intending colonist. This is more especially a characteristic of the immi-

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

grant who commences his career as a labourer, and his first impulse, after finding himself in his new country in possession of a small sum beyond what is necessary for his daily expenditure, generally leads him to purchase a few acres of land, on which he may begin life as an independent man.

I have already alluded to the liberal wages, in addition to other advantages which almost always fall to the lot of all persons of the labouring class now going to New Zealand. And, as many of these may be desirous of obtaining assistance to reach so promising a country, I propose in the remainder of this chapter to set before them the means by which they may obtain Assisted Passages to the several settlements.

Almost every part of New Zealand has during the last twelve or eighteen months, suffered severely from the want of a sufficient number of hands to gather in the harvest, as well as for other equally important operations affecting the improvement of the resources of the country.

The result of this general scarcity of labour has been that, in each of the six settlements, the Provincial Council have voted a portion of the revenue for the purpose of importing

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

labourers free of expense, either from England, or from the crowds of unemployed visitors attracted to the neighbouring colony of Australia.

Of the different provinces thus endeavouring to obtain an increase to their labouring population, I believe that the colonists at Canterbury alone have despatched an agent from New Zealand to England, for the express purpose of encouraging emigration to the colony of which he is a member, and with authority to pay in advance a portion of the passage money of labouring people and domestic servants, who may be going to the Canterbury settlement under his approval.

I have elsewhere mentioned that the colonists of Auckland and also of New Plymouth, have endeavoured to obtain labourers from Melbourne. In addition to the money thus expended, some funds have been sent to England for the payment of Assisted Passages to these as well as to other parts of New Zealand.

As however labouring people going to Canterbury, may, if they choose, avail themselves of the personal information of Mr. Harman the emigration agent, in addition to obtaining assistance for their passage out, I have in this chapter

CANTERBURY.

reversed the order in which the six settlements have hitherto been mentioned, and shall direct attention to the prospects of labourers in Canterbury, before noticing the means of obtaining assisted passages to the other provinces of New Zealand.

A sufficient account of Canterbury has already been given to convince the English labouring servant, of the vastly greater opportunities for accumulating money afforded him in that settlement than are to be found in any part of England. And since there is not in New Zealand, 42 as has lately occurred in Australia, any overwhelming attraction to induce vast crowds to congregate in any one particular district more than another; the labourer and the female domestic servant, emigrating to New Zealand may, for several years to come, rely with confidence on finding a most encouraging scale of wages, and advantageous terms of service open to them.

There can be no doubt that this will continue to he the case, notwithstanding the efforts made by the colonists to reduce the present enor-

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

mously high standard of hired labour within reasonable limits, by encouraging immigration as much as possible. Persons desirous of obtaining assistance in their outward voyage to Canterbury, are required to make personal application at the office, 32, Charing Cross, London, where they can obtain every information respecting the colony and the means of reaching it.

I can only repeat here, from my own knowledge, that female domestic servants, of whom there are in Canterbury very few now in service, may depend upon finding situations in that settlement; where not only they may obtain high wages, but where also the labours of a really good servant are more thoroughly appreciated than in many houses in England, in which the domestics are treated with consideration and kindness.

For information respecting price of provisions and the current rate of wages, at the most recent dates from the colony, I refer the reader to the description of Canterbury already given.

The following are the regulations published by Mr. Harman, the Canterbury Emigration Agent, from his office, 32, Charing Cross, London.

CANTERBURY.

Regulations for Assisted Passages to the province of Canterbury, New Zealand.

1. Assisted passages will be granted by the Provincial Government to bond fide labouring men, country mechanics, their wives and families, and female domestic servants only.

2. The Provincial Government will provide one half the passage money.

3. The remaining half must be paid by the emigrants, in cash in England; or, in special cases where they may be unable to pay in cash, and the emigration agent shall be satisfied of their entire respectability, part payment may be made in bills, which the emigration agent will receive in lieu of the amount which the emigrants may be unable to pay in cash. These bills will be made payable on demand to the provincial treasurer for the time being, but will be accompanied with an understanding that the payment of the bills will not be required within one year after the arrival of the emigrant in the colony, unless he shall sooner attempt to leave the province, in which case, payment will be immediately enforced, or sufficient security required for payment when the twelve months shall have expired.

4. Bills drawn in the colony to the order of the provincial treasurer, and approved by the superintendent, and which have been transmitted to England, will also be received by the emigration agent in lieu of cash payment.

5. The rate of passage money will be £22. per adult. Children under fourteen years to pay one-half passage money. Infants under one year are not charged for.

6. No person will be allowed any assistance in his

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

passage to the settlement until he shall have been approved of by the emigration agent. No person above the age of fifty years will receive an assisted passage.

7. Persons of all classes may obtain passages to the colony by undertaking the whole of the passage money. 43

REGULATIONS to be observed in respect to emigrants who have been selected to receive assisted passages to the province of Canterbury, New Zealand.

1. The emigrants must pay all their own expenses to the port, and up to the period of embarkation. Funds must be provided to meet the expense of dock charges for luggage, which may be assumed at from 1s. to 2s. per package.

2. Emigrants will not be permitted to embark unless provided with a sufficient supply of clothing and other necessaries for the voyage. Their supply will be inspected by an officer at the port of embarkation. The following articles are the least which will be deemed sufficient: –

For each Bed.

For each Person.

1 mattress.

6 towels.

1 bolster.

3 pounds of marine soap.

2 blankets.

A knife and fork.

6 sheets.

A deep tin or pewter plate.

1 coverlid.

A spoon.

A pint drinking mug.

A hook pot.

CANTERBURY.

CLOTHING.

For Males.

For Females.

6 shirts.

6 shifts.

6 pairs of stockings.

2 flannel petticoats.

2 pairs of shoes.

6 pairs of stockings.

2 complete suits of outside clothing.

2 pairs of shoes.

1 hair-brush and comb.

2 gowns.

1 hair-brush and comb.

It must be understood that this is by no means sufficient to secure comfort. The more abundant the stock of clothing, the better it will be both for health and for comfort during the voyage. The usual length of the voyage to New Zealand is about four months; and at whatever season it is made the emigrants have to pass through both very hot and cold weather, and should therefore be prepared for both.

3. Provisions for the voyage, cooking utensils, medicine, and medical attendance on board ship will be supplied.

4. The whole luggage per each adult emigrant must not measure more than ten cubic feet. It must be contained in two or three boxes, well packed, which should be distinctly marked with the name of the owner and the port of destination.

5. Each person or family must be provided with two canvas clothes bags, as the boxes will be put away in the hold of the ship, and access to them will only be obtained every three or four weeks.

R. J. S. HARMAN, EMIGRATION AGENT,
32, Charing Cross, London.

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

The Isabella Hercus left the St. Katherine's Docks for New Zealand on the 8th of September, having on board 118 assisted emigrants for the Canterbury settlement. The Provincial Government have now despatched to the settlement, through their agent, Mr. Harman, 530 emigrants from England (of whom 220 were able-bodied men), since the commencement of the present year, 1855.

ASSISTED EMIGRATION. WELLINGTON.

There is not, at the present time, any Agent specially appointed in London for granting assisted passages to Wellington, but a large sum has probably been granted during the late session of the Provincial Council for the purpose of importing labour into the province. Applicants for assisted passages from England to Wellington may gain information as to the sailing of ships, and also the amount of assistance which will be granted to them and their families, on application to Messrs. F. and H. Young, 9, Adelphi Terrace, and 74, Cornhill, London, who have been appointed Emigration Agents by the Government.

His Honour the Superintendent of Wellington, in his address at the opening of the Provin-

WELLINGTON.

cial Council on the 21st of December, 1854, made the following observations in reference to the immigration which had taken place during the past year.

I quote his remarks for the purpose of drawing attention to the fact, that, at the commencement of the present year, the number of unemployed labourers in Port Phillip was so great, that the colonists of New Zealand expected to be supplied with labour from Australia. This is of itself a sufficient proof of the comparative advantage of New Zealand over Australia as a sure field of occupation for labouring emigrants.

The following are the observations alluded to: –

"With reference to immigration during the past year, the results of the efforts of the Government are, that 261 persons have been sent for from England, and contracts have been made for the introduction of nearly 300 from Port Phillip; an agent having been despatched to make a proper selection, and to ascertain to what extent Port Phillip may be relied upon as a market for the supply of labour. Judging, however, from the latest accounts of the sufferings and privations of the labouring class in Melbourne, there seems little doubt that if

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

steam communication be established, and the passage money be advanced by way of a loan, that almost any amount of population might be imported during the next 12 months. It is satisfactory also to know, that already, without any assistance from Government, a tide of immigration has set in so steadily to this province, that the excess of immigrants over emigrants during the past year amounted to 497 persons."

The following are the Regulations recently published respecting assisted passages to Wellington:

Provincial Secretary's Office,
Wellington, June 29th, 1854.

The Provincial Government having completed arrangements for a line of emigration from Great Britain to Wellington, persons desirous of availing themselves of it on behalf of relatives, friends or labourers to be nominated in England are requested to make early application at the office of the Provincial Secretary particularising the names, probable ages, and place of residence, of the proposed emigrants.

REGULATIONS.

1. Repayment of the passage money to be secured by promissory note, signed by the applicant and one other party approved by the Government, payable on demand, and of which payment will be required by two instalments, at twelve and twenty-four months respectively after the arrival of the emigrants in Wellington, except in case of applicant or surety leaving the colony,

WELLINGTON.

when immediate payment will be required, or provision must be made for the same.

2. As a further security, and to protect the parties on whose application the emigrant is brought out, the emigrant himself (or head of a family where there are women and children) will, before embarking, be required to give promissory notes, payable on demand, which will be forwarded to the Local Government.

3. In case of any emigrant not presenting himself for embarkation at the time and place appointed by the agent in England, after having accepted the offer of a passage, and so being left behind, one half of the passage money will be forfeited, and must be paid to the Provincial Government on demand, by the applicants in the Colony; for which the first mentioned promissory notes will be a security.

4. In order to secure punctuality, and prevent disappointment, a special clerk will be employed by the shipping agents in England, who, on receipt of requisitions from the Provincial Government, will communicate with the intending emigrants, ascertain when they will be prepared to start, give notice in duplicate of the port and day of departure, and make all the arrangements necessary to facilitate embarkation. A depot, or other provision for temporary board and lodging will be provided at the ports of embarkation, at the expense of the agent, in case of the ship not sailing to the day.

5. Emigrants and their personal baggage will be landed free of expense.

6. All ships under this arrangement will make Wellington their first port.

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

7. Rate of passage money: –

Adults - £20. per head.

Between 7 and 14 - £10. per head.

Between 1 and 7 - £6. 13s. d. per head.

Under 1 year, no charge.

8. Personal baggage in the following proportions: –

Adults – – - 1/4 ton, per head.

Not adults, but above 1 year old – – - 1/8 ton, per head.

9. All ships employed in this service will be under the provisions of the Passenger Act, and every means be used to secure the comfort and welfare of the passengers.

10. To secure attention and good conduct on the part of the captains and medical officers, a gratuity, at the rate of £50. for every 100 passengers, will be paid to each by the Provincial Government, on the satisfactory completion of the voyage, but withheld on well established grounds of complaint.

Further, in order to promote the instruction as well as comfort of the passengers, arrangements will be made for the establishment of a library for their use on board each ship during the voyage; and also a school, whenever the number of emigrants shall render it practicable; for which latter purpose, a schoolmaster will be selected, who will be entitled to a free passage, in consideration of his services.

WILLIAM FITZHERBERT,
Provincial Secretary.

Shipping Agents – F. Young and Co., 74, Cornhill, and 9, Adelphi Terrace, London.

WELLINGTON.

Messrs. Frederick Young and Co., to whom I applied for information on the subject of assisted emigration to the settlements other than Canterbury, have kindly furnished me with the following particulars, dated –

"New Zealand Colonists' Rooms, 9, Adelphi Terrace,
" June 6th, 1855.

"We regret that up to the present time, the arrangements under which a few emigrants have been sent out, have been merely temporary and indefinite. For instance, Wellington only undertakes through its provincial legislature to write home for parties whose relatives in the colony make application for their transmission, giving guarantee to the Government for the payment of the passage money, which payment is required within two years after arrival in New Zealand.

"No fund has yet been provided for bona fide assisted emigration: we are, however, making every effort on our parts, to induce the various Provincial Governments to carry out a real and liberal system of assisted and free passages."

The Australian and New Zealand Gazette, for the 21st of March, 1855, contains the following remarks in allusion to the recent departure from England of assisted emigrants to the settlements of Wellington and Canterbury.

"The colonists of Wellington have recently adopted measures for introducing labour to their province.

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

"The Council has not as yet voted any sum for the purpose; but as the Provincial Government has sanctioned a plan for introducing labour by this means, the sanction of the Council will no doubt be forthcoming. The Wellington plan is, for the English emigrant, to pay one-half of the passage money, whilst the Government will pay the other half on arrival of the emigrant, looking to him for the repayment at the expiration of a period, which, with the wages to be earned, will render repayment easy. This plan differs in some respects from the Canterbury plan; the Provincial Council of that settlement having voted £10,000 for the purpose of defraying half the passage money of the emigrant who may pay the other half either in money before starting, or in a bill, to be repaid in the colony, at the expiration of twelve months.

"Messrs. Willis and Co. have despatched a ship on these conditions to Canterbury, and Messrs. F. Young and Co. have done the same to Wellington. In the case of the vessel which sailed last week to Canterbury, a most gratifying circumstance occurred in the payment of a considerable portion of the passage money by the colonial friends and relatives of the emigrants; those who thus provided the means having themselves been, three or four years ago, free emigrants, sent out by the Canterbury Association. This is a certain proof of the success with which steady labour has been rewarded at Canterbury, and of the good feeling which prompted the anxiety on the part of the successful colonists, that their friends in England should participate in their good fortunes."

NELSON.

The same newspaper for May, 1855, contains the following paragraph: –

"IMMIGRATION. – The Colonial Government at Wellington are advertising for persons willing to contract for the periodical introduction from Melbourne, Adelaide, or Sydney, of passengers of a class suitable to the requirements of the labour market of that province. Payment of the passage money to be made to the contractors in Government debentures bearing eight per cent. interest per annum.

ASSISTED EMIGRATION TO NELSON.

Arrangements have lately been made by the local Government of Nelson with Messrs. Fell and Co., the Nelson agents of Messrs. Willis and Co. 3, Crosby Square, Bishopsgate Street, London, for bringing out from England to Nelson settlement, persons whose passages have been applied for by their friends in the Nelson Province. Persons desirous of obtaining assistance in their voyage to Nelson should apply for information to Messrs. Willis, at 3, Crosby Square, Bishopsgate.

A recent number of the Nelson Examiner contains the following remarks respecting the local arrangements for assisting emigration to the province: –

"An opinion, we learn, has gone abroad that the local Government has ceased to receive applications for

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

assisted passages, and many persons who are desirous of getting their friends out from England, and who are willing to enter into engagements for the purpose, have in consequence been deterred from making the necessary applications. This is altogether a mistake, for the Government has no intention of discontinuing the system of immigration by assisted passages, but will continue to forward home the names of persons for whom passages are sought, by every opportunity."

The Nelson colonists appear, from the following extract from the Melbourne Argus, to have followed the example of other settlements in endeavouring to obtain a supply of labour from the neighbouring colony of Australia.

"The 'Marchioness' schooner that has been trading between this Port and New Zealand, has been taken up by the Government of that country for the purpose of conveying mechanics and agricultural labourers to New Zealand free of charge. The 'Alexander' has been engaged for a similar purpose, and we are informed that other vessels will be speedily laid on. The 'Zingari' steamer left the Port for Nelson, New Zealand, about half past three in the afternoon, with a full complement of cabin and steerage passengers."

Such paragraphs as the above, even if discouraging to the intending labouring emigrant, by shewing him that the colonists are taking active measures to provide for the necessary cultivation of their lands, ought at least to

NELSON.

convince him, that he will find in New Zealand fully as lucrative a field for his exertions, as in the more brilliant but over crowded Port towns of Australia.

ASSISTED EMIGRATION TO OTAGO.

I have not been able to ascertain that any agent has been appointed in England for granting assisted passages to Otago. In case any sum were transmitted to England for such a purpose, information would probably be sent to Messrs. F. and H. Young, 74, Cornhill; and to Messrs. Willis, 3, Crosby Square, Bishops-gate Street.

The Otago Witness for September, 1854, which has probably some authority for its remarks, contains the following notice of the possible expenditure of Government funds upon immigration. After mentioning that owing to the want of labourers in the colony a sum of £2000, applicable to the making of roads, could not be made use of, the writer continues: –

"If, then, consequent upon the scarcity of labour in the colony, our surplus revenue cannot be turned to profitable account in the formation of roads, it becomes a question worthy of consideration, whether such surplus should not be advanced for the introduction of labour, and made a first charge upon the immigration fund as soon as any exists.

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

"In addition to the £2000. already adverted to, we are given to understand that a further sum of about £1000., secured under an arrangement of the association, will become available for the purposes of immigration as soon as the Council is convened. These two sums would forthwith provide for the passage of at least one hundred adults, with an equal number of children; and which, although to a limited extent, would alleviate the difficulties that are at present experienced for want of labour, and would thus facilitate the expenditure of any surplus revenues in the formation of roads."

The following advertisement, in reference to the payment of the passage money of assisted emigrants after their arrival in Otago, has also been recently published in the Otago Witness, by a mercantile firm in the colony.

"ASSISTED IMMIGRATION. – Having found that many parties have been deterred from bringing out their friends to the settlement, in consequence of the passage money having been payable immediately on arrival, the undersigned beg to intimate that in cases where the parties are unable to provide the whole passage-money immediately on arrival, they are prepared to advance to respectable persons such portions of the amount and for such periods as may be arranged.
"JAMES MACANDREW & Co., Otago."

A document recently published, in reference to assisted emigration to Otago, is given below. No agent, however, that I am aware

OTAGO.

of, has (October, 1855) been appointed in England.

"Rules to be observed by the Agents for Otago in regard to Emigration.

"SELECTION. – The agents shall carefully satisfy themselves that the parties are of sound mind and body, healthy, skilful in their callings, of industrious habits, and good moral character. The certificates of their possessing these qualifications to be transmitted along with them.

"Parties producing letters from kinsfolk or friends in Otago, and whose names are also upon the list sent home, if found qualified as above, to have a preference over all other applicants.

"A preference also to be given to married couples with families, if otherwise qualified as above.

"In general, selection to be made in such way as that there shall be an equal number of both sexes. Young unmarried females, not members of families, to be placed under the guardianship of the heads of a family or a matron.

"Each party of emigrants to be selected with a view to the supply of the kinds of labour in demand in the settlement, as the agents shall be advised.

"EXTENT OF AID. – Parties having sufficient funds of their own shall not be entitled to aid from the immigration fund. And parties aided shall give obligation to repay the sum advanced on their account by such yearly instalments, in number and amount, as shall be arranged between them and the agents.

"SHIPS. – The ships to be chartered from ports most

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

convenient for the bulk of the passengers; to be uniformly first class; and in victualling, accommodation, and otherwise, to be at least equal to other passenger-ships between London and New Zealand.
"Superintendent's Office, Dunedin, Dec. 28, 1854."

NEW PLYMOUTH – ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

The colonists of New Plymouth have not, of late, attempted to introduce labourers from England at the expense of the provincial revenue. There certainly is, however, a great want of labour in the settlement, as the colonists have lately endeavoured to obtain labourers from Australia, which is distant not more than ten or twelve days in a direct voyage from the roadstead of Taranaki. The following extracts, from speeches delivered at a public meeting held at New Plymouth, in October, 1854, to consider the means of procuring a supply of labour from Melbourne, may interest the reader; not only as shewing the class of men who might be expected to avail themselves of opportunities for emigrating from Australia to New Zealand, but also, as answering in some measure the complaints so frequently caused by the difference between the market prices in a colony, previous to and subsequent to the arrival of a vessel with emigrants.

NEW PLYMOUTH.

Mr. Leithwaite said, "he had recently arrived from Melbourne. There were of course a great number of the worthless class about that place, but he did not think there need be any fear, they were just the men who would not be inclined to come, and at any rate be easily discriminated by an intelligent agent. He believed that this province might now be supplied with labourers from Melbourne; he would not say agricultural labourers, but strong men willing to work, and not belonging to the vicious classes. They might be principally chosen from the new arrivals while suffering under the difficulties that now beset them on landing, and who are generally desirous of returning to England. Many of those who came out with him would have been glad to take advantage of this offer, and it must be recollected that the principal part of these new arrivals are free emigrants; he believed that they would have been glad to have repaid the money. It would not pay to bring a vessel over without a guarantee for fifty, which would be £500, the vessel could bring many more, and he did not doubt if this arrangement were accomplished to the extent of fifty, many others able and willing to pay their passages, might be found ready to take advantage of it."

"The Rev. G. Bayley suggested the system of advertising in the Melbourne papers as likely to bring men of better character and qualifications, whom the inducement of high wages might tempt to pay their own passages. And that the advertisements should state a fair price of labour and food. It was objected that it would be impossible to do this without opening a door for complaint, that the price of food was sure to fluctuate, and that their

ASSISTED EMIGRATON.

wages mould come down, and men would say that they have been deceived. Mr. Leithwaite did not think that such a system would answer, nor did he think there was any fear that the vicious would desire to take advantages of the assisted passages proposed. There were artizans of every kind, men used to labour, who would prove useful to the place and benefit themselves."

From the following paragraph it appears that the formation of a company to import labour from Australia was the result of the meeting above mentioned.

"The extreme scarcity of labour in New Zealand continues to be a great drawback to its progress. The superintendent of Nelson is despatching a vessel to Melbourne to bring 200 labourers from that place. At New Plymouth, also, a company is being formed for the same purpose." – Australian and New Zealand Gazette, February 24th, 1855.

AUCKLAND – ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

Information as to assisted passages to Auckland may he obtained from Messrs. Willis, 3, Crosby Square, Bishopsgate Street, and also at Messrs. Young's New Zealand Colonists' Rooms, Cornhill, and Adelphi Terrace.

There does not, however, at the present time,

AUCKLAND.

appear to be any considerable sum in England, available for the payment of assisted passages of emigrants to Auckland.

The Messrs. Young have lately devoted much attention to the promotion of free and assisted emigration for labouring persons from England to all parts of New Zealand, but the only labourers imported at the expense of the provincial revenue of Auckland, as yet, have been a few very recently from Melbourne; and also those persons in England whose passages had been applied for in Auckland; – their friends in the colony entering into an agreement for the repayment to the Government of their passage money, within a stated period after their arrival in the province.

The following passages from the address delivered by the Superintendent at the opening of the second session of the Provincial Council of Auckland, on the 25th of October, 1854, have reference to immigration: –

"The subject of immigration, second only in importance to that of the waste lands, and intimately connected with it, will not fail, I feel assured, also, to engage your earnest attention. Under Sir George Grey's land regulations of the 4th of March, 1853, and under instructions subsequently issued by his Excellency, a

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

certain portion of the land receipts is set apart as a fund for promoting immigration by means of assisted passages. A sum of £5,690. 12s. had, up to the 30th of September, 1854, been paid into the provincial treasury on account of this fund; and, it is also calculated that, under the existing arrangement, this sum will be increased to £10,000. at the close of the current year. Assisted passages for 633 individuals have been applied for. The Land and Emigration Commissioners have been requested by the general government, through the Secretary of State, to provide passages for 535 of that number, some of whom may be expected to arrive immediately from London. Considerable delay arises from entrusting business of this description to the Land and Emigration Commissioners, who despatch the emigrants only when a number can be collected sufficient to authorise them to charter a ship. With a view to prevent a recurrence of this delay, a sum of £800. being half the amount required for the passage of 80 individuals – not included amongst those sent for through the Commissioners – has been remitted by the provincial government to an agent in London, with instructions to provide, for the persons designated, passages to Auckland as early as possible, and on the most favourable terms that can be obtained. No payment on account of immigration having been made by the general Government, the amount of liabilities incurred cannot be calculated with accuracy; but if (which, however, is not probable) all those who have been sent for should come out, the whole of the funds that will be available for this purpose up to the 1st of January next, will be absorbed."

AUCKLAND.

The following statistics of emigration for 1854, though not exclusively referring to New Zealand, may be interesting to the reader. The extract is taken from the Times, of July 19th, 1855: –

REPORT OF THE COLONIAL LAND AND EMIGRATION COMMISSIONERS, July, 1855. – This report has just appeared in the form of a readable blue-book of 200 pages. From the general preliminary observations we gather the following particulars: – The total number of persons who emigrated in 1854 amounted to 323,429, being less by 16,095 than the average of the last four years, and 45,335 less than the emigration of 1852, the largest that has yet taken place. Of these 323,429 emigrants, 43,761 proceeded to British North America, 193,065 to the United States, 83,237 to Australia, and 3366 to other places. In 1853, 329,937 persons emigrated – 34,522 to British North America, 230,885 to the United States, and 61,401 to Australia; while in 1852, 368,764 persons emigrated – 32,873 to British North America, 244,261 to the United States, and 87,881 to Australia. The great decrease, it will be seen, is in the emigration to America, for, although there was a considerable increase in that to the British North American provinces, yet the whole number who went to America in 1854 was 28,581 less than in 1853, and 40,308 less than in 1852. The emigration to Australia, which reacted in 1853, recovered itself in 1854, and is now, the Commissioners hope, in a healthier condition than ever. Turning to the general emigration to Australia, it appears that in 1854, 152 passenger-ships, carrying

ASSISTED EMIGRATION.

35,949 passengers, sailed for that colony, besides 371 "short-ships," carrying 6223 passengers. 2768 persons emigrated to New South Wales, 35,384 to Victoria, 1333 to South Australia, 37 to Western Australia, 1990 to Van Diemen's Land, and 860 to New Zealand. There are signs of the commencement of the same system of remittances from Australia as has prevailed for several years from America, and these remittances will probably introduce a somewhat different class into the emigration. The facility with which money is acquired in Australia, makes it probable that the sums sent home will be quite as large in proportion to the number of persons by whom it is sent as from America, although, from the greater cost of the outfit, it will have less effect upon the emigration. The results of the emigration carried on through the instrumentality of the board at the Government expense for the last eight years is, that £3,400,000. has been expended in the removal of about 580,000 souls. The Government emigration to Australia included 41,056 persons. On this emigration there is little to record, except that it was larger in 1854 than in any previous year. 11,789 proceeded to New South Wales, 15,907 to Victoria, 10,324 to South Australia, 444 to Western Australia, 2322 to Van Diemen's Land, 3190 to New Zealand; 472 emigrated to Jamaica, 1928 to Guiana, and 687 to Trinidad. It appears that in the first four months of 1855, 41 ships have been despatched to Australia, carrying 13,196 persons – viz, 6064 to New South Wales, 3088 to Victoria, and 4044 to South Australia. The total number of emigrants to all parts, during the first three months of 1855 amounted to 36,677 against 49,756 in 1854, and 60,867 in 1853. It appears that,

EMIGRATION COMMISSIONERS' REPORT.

while the emigration to Australia has exceeded that of any previous years, that to the United States is scarcely more than half what it was in 1854, and two-fifths of what it was in 1853. The decrease is amongst the Irish, Scotch, and foreigners. As regards the Scotch and Irish, the decrease is attributable to their improved condition and prospects at home. The emigration from the United Kingdom during the 40 years from 1815 to 1854 included 4,116,958 souls, being an annual average of 102.223 from 1815 to 1854, and 305,600 for the eight years ending 1854. 1,114,997 of these emigrants went to the American colonies, 2,481,531 to the United States, 455,477 to Australia, and 57,956 to all other places.

42 The Coromandel "Gold Fields," near Auckland, are hardly worth alluding to. Gold has also been found in other parts of New Zealand, but has never attracted much notice.

43 In making application for assisted passages applicants should be particular in stating their trade or calling, together with the names and ages of themselves, and of each member of their families.

CHAPTER XIV. PRICE OF WASTE LANDS IN NEW ZEALAND.

CHAPTER XIV.

PRICE OF WASTE LANDS IN NEW ZEALAND.

NO topic in Colonial affairs has undergone more discussion than the price at which the unoccupied waste land in a colony should be sold.

Each of the several settlements of New Zealand was subjected, at the time of its foundation, to a variously graduated scale of prices, for the town, the suburban, and the rural lands, within the projected boundaries of the settlement; and each method has, after a time, been altered or modified, to meet the amended opinions formed by practical experience.

In the preceding part of this book, I have endeavoured to impress upon the reader, that in almost all cases, the colonist recently arrived in any part of New Zealand will consult his own interest better – both as to convenience in position, and also in the expenditure incurred in making his land speedily available – by purchasing from private owners, land well situated, and with the advantages of easy access, and neighbourhood, even at a considerable premium on the original cost; rather than by buying and endeavouring to reclaim portions of land

GOVERNMENT PRICE OF LAND.

which have hitherto never been occupied, and which may be bought from the Government at the fixed standard of 10s. an acre.

At the present time the price of all waste land is 10s an acre, subject to certain modifications in particular districts, and in cases where land is declared by the Government Commissioners not he worth 10s. an acre, owing to its distance from a town, or other disadvantages, it is sold by auction at an upset price of 5s. per acre.

A fair average price of land sold by private owners, who purchased some years ago; and have perhaps improved their sections by cultivation, and drainage; or by more passively waiting, until the influx of population, and the formation of roads, &c. has increased the value of property in the district – would vary from £3. to £5. and occasionally as high as even £10. or £20. an acre. 44 As a proof that these higher prices do not prevent the labouring colonist from becoming a purchaser of land, it will probably be found, on inquiry, that the greater proportion of the landowners in any part of New Zealand who began their career as working men, have paid

NEW ZEALAND COMPANY'S DEBT.

as much as £5. an acre for their land. The farms of which such men now are the sole owners were probably purchased by yearly instalments; or, taken at a valuation, after a few years occupation on lease, from original purchasers who bought sections of from 50 to 500 acres, previous to the reduction of the price of waste land to its present standard.

Having said thus much, in order to shew that it is not always economical, to purchase a tract of land at a low price, and to bring it into cultivation by gradual yearly improvement; I must leave the selection of his locality, and the actual purchase of his land to the colonist's own judgment, AFTER his arrival in New Zealand. I will now proceed to explain the local regulations, at the present time in force, respecting the sale of land by the various provincial Governments in the colony.

A person buying land in New Zealand at the present day, will probably be surprised to hear, that his purchase money, instead of being entirely paid in to the Colonial Treasury, is, in part, appropriated to the liquidation of the debts of the New Zealand Company.

Without entering into minute details, I will here very briefly allude to the past transactions

VARIOUS SYSTEMS OF LAND SALE.

affecting the sale of rural lands in New Zealand, and their bearing upon the present state of the land question.

Such an inquiry will also throw some light, upon the causes, owing to which some of the settlements have hitherto been restricted within limits far too narrow for the full development of the resources at the command of the colonists. 45

The brief history of the various systems, which for the last fourteen years have obtained for buying and selling the lands of the natives of New Zealand, is as follows: On the first advent of the New Zealand Company's agent in 1839, he bought from the natives, nearly the whole southern half of the North Island, and a considerable portion of the Middle Island, for what was deemed by both parties, an equivalent in English merchandise. The agent, however, was ignorant of, or overlooked, one essential point of his bargain, viz. that, by native law and custom, the lands so purchased must be occupied, in order to render the sale valid. He had presented to them, a regular Deed of bargain and sale to sign, and they had signed it – but under their own ideas of what constituted the actual transfer of the property in the land.

The Company had the deed to shew for the purchase

CHECK TO LAND SALES.

of the lands, but, as they had not formally taken possession by occupation, the Governor on his arrival, set aside as invalid the Company's deeds, and also the deeds of Missionaries, and traders, who had made similar purchases.

Thereupon the rule was established, that the right of pre-emption from the natives was vested in the Queen alone; and a treaty to this effect was concluded with a portion, but not the whole number, of the natives.

Some misunderstanding's on the part of the natives, with respect to this treaty, into which it is not here necessary to inquire, gave rise to a war between the Europeans and the natives; and, on the termination of the war, the Government gave permission to the natives to sell their lands as they pleased. Soon after this, the governor, Captain Fitz-Roy, was recalled. On the recall of Governor Fitz-Roy, his successor, Sir George Grey, set about repairing his predecessor's blunders.

But the natives had observed the high prices demanded by the New Zealand Company for the lands they sold to the colonists in their settlement, and – without inquiring into the expenditure of the Company upon the improvement of the country with the funds arising from land sales – they refused to sell their own waste lands except at the most extortionate prices.

They looked only at the price land brought when resold by the Europeans, after the formation of organized settlements; and thus, one of the first effects of the high price system was, to put a stop to the sale of native lands at all, and with it, any thing like the progress of which the country was capable. In New Plymouth, the second of the Company's settlements,

CHARGE OF DEBT ON LAND REVENUE.

in the order of its foundation, the inhabitants have only very recently procured sufficient land to cultivate. The same thing has occurred at Wellington, the first settlement formed in New Zealand. An agricultural district, suitable to the wants of the population, having only been obtained from the natives during the last two years, after fourteen years of comparative inaction, when the capabilities of the country are taken into consideration.

At length, Sir George Grey, having succeeded in inducing the natives to part with some portions of their territories, reduced the price of all waste lands not under local regulations, to 10s., or for inferior land, 5s. an acre.

In the meanwhile the New Zealand Company had become involved to the amount of £250,000. and an Act of Parliament was passed, the practical effect of which is, that the liabilities of the Company are to be paid off out of the revenue arising from the sale of lands in the colony, so that, at the present time, a large portion of the revenue, arising in each province by the sale of lands within its jurisdiction, is appropriated to the payment of the debts of a trading company, instead of contributing to the advantage of the colonists of the country. 46

CHARGE OF NEW ZEALAND

These details have possibly little interest for most emigrants, whose chief anxiety on going

COMPANY'S DEBT ON LAND REVENUE.

to any part of New Zealand is, to know upon what terms they may expect to purchase land on

AUCKLAND.

their arrival. I will, therefore, at once proceed to quote the latest regulations on the subject.

I have already mentioned that the fixed Government price of wasteland in New Zealand is either 10s. an acre; or, in sales by auction, the upset price is fixed at 5s. an acre.

There are, however, certain districts attached to each province, over the sale of which the Council for that province have especial jurisdiction. I have endeavoured in this chapter to give a summary of the latest information which has reached England respecting the arrangement made for the sale of lands in each province.

In Auckland, at the opening of the second session of the Provincial Council, some regulations for the sale of land within the province were laid before the Council for approval. These regulations have probably already passed into law. It will be sufficient in this place to mention only their principal features.

AUCKLAND.

The waste land of the Crown in the Province of Auckland will be divided into five classes, consisting of town, suburban, rural, special occupation land, and general country lands.

Copies of the regulations will probably soon

"SPECIAL OCCUPATION SCHEME."

be forwarded to England, and may be seen at the offices I have mentioned, viz. Mr. Young's New Zealand Colonist Rooms, and Messrs. Willis's in Crosby Square. I will therefore refer the reader to the document itself for information relating to the other four classes, and will here notice particularly the "Special occupation land" scheme, which is the most novel and distinctive feature of the plan.

"It is proposed that in every district of the province which shall be declared open for settlement, at least one-third – not inferior to the average of the district in any of the advantages which invest land with value, shall be set apart for "special occupation," or as working settlers' land, to be sold at the fixed price of 10s. an acre, only to persons intending bona fide to occupy and improve the same. Under the direction of the Waste land Board [the establishment of which forms another marked feature in the proposed regulations] any of the blocks into which this land is to be divided, may be either declared to be open on a fixed day for sale in New Zealand, or reserved for sale in the United Kingdom, or other places out of New Zealand; and a land order giving a right of selection of not less than forty nor more than 500 acres of such block, may be obtained on the payment of 1s. per acre as deposit. The right of selection thus acquired must be exercised within limited times from the date of the land order, viz. two months, if the order be issued by the Board in Auckland, six months if it be issued by an agent of the Board in the Australian colonies, and twelve months if it be issued

PASSAGE MONEY PART PAYMENT.

by such an agent in England, or elsewhere; an arrangement made to prevent the locking up of the land for an indefinite period. The selection having been made, the person may immediately enter on the occupation of the land on a lease for four years at the yearly rent of one shilling per acre, the shilling per acre which he has paid in deposit being counted as payment for the first year. At the end of the term of four years, the conditions of the agreement having been meantime fulfilled by the occupant, he shall be entitled to obtain a crown grant in fee simple of the land, without the competition of an auction sale on completing the payment of 10s an acre.

"Parties not in the colony may make purchases from the agents appointed by the Government, and their passage money to the colony will be accounted for as part payment in the following proportions; if a cabin passenger, one half of the sum actually expended for himself and family; intermediate, or steerage passengers, as follows: from Europe for every adult £20. – for every child not above fourteen years, £12. – every child not exceeding seven, £8. – and from any of the Australian colonies, every adult, £8. – every child not above fourteen years, £5. – and every child not exceeding seven years, £3.

"Separate provisions are laid down adapted to the circumstances of emigrants from India, not a few of whom, there is reason to believe, will be happy to avail themselves of such facilities for settling in a country the climate of which, apart from all other inducements, must commend it pre-eminently to their choice. And yet further provisions are proposed to meet the case of military settlers, by which the benefits of the regula-

TEMPORARY OCCUPATION.

tions will be extended, not only to naval and military officers, but throughout the several descending gradations of rank in either service, so as to include private soldiers, marines, and seamen."

WELLINGTON.

The latest accounts which have reached England from Wellington, do not afford any information, beyond what is contained in the following resolution passed at the last meeting of the Provincial Council of Wellington.

"In the opinion of this House, it is essential that the whole administration of the waste lands of this province should be placed upon a distinct and permanent footing at the earliest possible date, and that such terms of purchase and pasturage with respect to such lands as shall be most in accordance with the wants and wishes of the majority of the settlers should be established; and that, pending the consideration and adjustment of this question it is desirable that steps should be taken whereby individuals requiring bond fide occupation of rural and suburban lands should at once be permitted to occupy the same on payment of a deposit of 5s. an acre, and to give an obligation for the bona fide occupation and cultivation of said lands to such an extent as may be hereafter fixed, and to fulfil whatever terms may be ultimately determined on before they receive a title to such lands. That a stop be put to the sale of all bush lands in every place where there is any considerable extent of open land available for occupation and cultivation, with only a small extent of bush in

PRICE OF LAND.

the neighbourhood, and that in no case shall more than one-tenth part of any land sold be bush land, until suitable and permanent arrangements are made for the proper disposal of bush lands. That in reference to pasturage regulations, this House is of opinion that the present holders of runs within the province for a term of years should not be disturbed in their occupation of such runs. That a respectful address be transmitted to his Honour the Superintendent requesting that he may be pleased to adopt such measures as shall carry the foregoing resolution into effect.

ARCHIBALD ANDERSON, Speaker.

NELSON.

THE colonists of Nelson do not appear to have passed Resolutions in any way modifying the prices fixed by the General Council, viz.: 10s. per acre for average rural lands, and 5s. per acre as the upset auction price of lands in the less available districts.

NEW PLYMOUTH.

A very lengthy code of Regulations for the sale of land in the province of New Plymouth, has been laid before the present Session of the Provincial Council for their approbation. The most interesting of which to the English reader are the following:

The first regulation declares all regulations hitherto in force to be entirely repealed.

HOLDERS OF COMPANY'S SCRIP.

The third and following declare, that so soon as the native title shall be extinguished in any district, and the district open for the occupation of settlers, due notice shall be forwarded to the Superintendent, and thereupon such district shall be properly surveyed and laid out into sections of rural land and town sites.

The 29th declares, that after any new district has been surveyed and laid out for sale, the holders of unsatisfied land orders of the New Zealand Company, or of scrip issued in liquidation of claims upon the New Zealand Company, shall be entitled, at any time previous to the first January, 1857, to select allotments in any rural district, according to their respective order of choice, before such land is declared open for sale under these regulations.

The 36th and following declare, that rural land and town land shall be sold by auction alone. The upset price of rural land to be 10s. an acre. The upset price of town land to be such a price as shall be fixed upon by the Superintendent when a township is laid out.

The following regulations are especially framed for the encouragement of the immigration of labouring people to New Plymouth.

ALLOWANCE TO IMMIGRANTS.

47. Intermediate or steerage passengers of the classes hereinafter defined arriving in the province after the 31st day of December, 1854, from Europe, North America, Australia, or Van Diemen's Land shall be allowed to select and purchase lands, at auctions under these regulations, at half the selling price, to an amount not exceeding the amount hereinafter specified.

ALLOWANCES TO IMMIGRANTS.

48. The classes entitled to allowance under the preceding classes, and the amount to which lands shall be purchasable by them at half price as aforesaid, shall be respectively as follows: –

Classes entitled.

Value of lands purchaseable at half price.

1. Married men accompanied by their wives, neither being above 36 years of age if accompanied by any child ; if accompanied by one child; 40 years if accompanied by two children, and so on; two years additional being allowed in the age of the parents for every child (under the age of 21) accompanying them.

£80. with £20. additional for every such child.

2. Single women under 30 years of age

£40.

3. Single men under 30 years of age, who shall marry in the colony,

£40.

Note. – The age and description are in every case referable to the time of arrival.

Provided that immigrants from Australia or Van Diemen's Land, shall be entitled to purchase to one half the above amount, and no more.

49. No claim for allowance under Clause 47 shall be admitted until the claimant with his wife, or the claimant being a female, the claimant herself, shall have resided twelve calendar months in the province, nor shall any money previously expended in the purchase of land be returned.

50. Allowances under clause 47 shall not be made to any person whose passage money, or the passage monies of whose wife or children shall have been paid by the

OTAGO.

Provincial Government, unless and until such passage money be repaid.

Military Settlers.

58. Non-commissioned and warrant officers in Her Majesty's Army and Navy, and also soldiers, marines, and sailors discharged from Her Majesty's service with good-conduct certificates, whether discharged in the colony or elsewhere, and arriving in the province after the 31st day of December, 1854, shall, being qualified by marriage and residence in the province with their wives, after discharge, be entitled to the like allowance under clause 47 as steerage passengers arriving from Europe or North America.

The above regulations to come into operation from the 1st day of March, 1855.

OTAGO.

The land regulations laid before the last session of the Otago Provincial Council for their approval, are noticed as follows: –

"The following land regulations, are proposed by the Superintendent.

"The price to be fixed at 10s. per acre, subject to auction sales, within the neighbourhood of towns and villages, with conditions compelling an annual outlay for four years at the rate of 20s. per acre, the grants to be withheld until the conditions are complied with. The expenditure of £4. per acre at any time short of four years to entitle the person to an immediate grant.

"Purchasers to be free of the cost of surveys. Roads

PRICE OF LAND.

and immigration to be provided for by Ordinance, [i. e. taxation.]

"The land department (sales and depasturage licences) to be administered by a Board of not less than three commissioners. Land to be given free to immigrants to the extent of passage money.

"No lands to be sold, until proclaimed as open for sale."

New Zealand Spectator, January 3, 1855.

CANTERBURY.

Much prejudice has been excited against the original scheme of the Canterbury settlement, on account of the high price of £3. an acre which was until very recently charged for all lands within the boundaries of the province. Although few persons who have really examined into the progress of the colony, have been at all disheartened at, or disapproved of, its career from the time of its origin as a Colony up to the present time; yet so general is the impression at home that the "high price principle" in the sale of lands has proved a failure, that I think it worth while once more to allude to the subject.

I shall quote a few sentences from a speech delivered in December, 1854, in the Provincial Council of Canterbury by one of the members – Mr. Hall – for the purpose of shewing that even at the present time, the idea is not abandoned,

CANTERBURY.

that a high price of land in some parts of New Zealand, will be rather a boon than a disadvantage to the labouring settler, or to the colonist of limited means.

To shew that the fear of the monopolization of land at a low price by speculators seeking investment for a large capital is not without foundation, Mr. Hall mentions that in the province of Wellington between March, 1853, and January, 1854, 54,000 acres were sold. In Nelson 98,000 acres had passed into private hands, and in Canterbury itself, since the price had been reduced, 50,000 acres had been sold at 10s. an acre. He proceeds to say, "That the original price of £3. an acre (the price of the land in Canterbury) without in any degree checking the progress of beneficial occupation, or impeding the progress of real colonists, has effectually prevented gambling and speculation in land, and secured for the colonists a blessed ignorance of the numerous evils which in most other settlements have resulted from the proceedings principally on the part of absentees."

In proposing to continue the high price, he observes, "By the existing arrangements of the allotment of the revenue of New Zealand after one-fourth of the land fund has been paid to

PRICE OF LAND.

the New Zealand Company, a large proportion of the remainder goes towards defraying the expenses of the general Government, and the purchase of land from the natives in the North Island." In order, therefore, that Canterbury, by selling its land at a higher rate per acre, may not be compelled to contribute a larger proportion to these purposes than the other settlements which only charge 10s. an acre for their lands, he proposes to charge at the same rate as other provinces, viz. 10s. an acre for the land; but, to prevent speculative purchases of large tracts, he proposes in addition to levy a rate of 10s. per acre per year for five years after purchase. This additional 10s. a year to be expended solely on immigration and public works within the province. The virtual effect of this arrangement to the purchaser would be that the land will cost him £3. an acre which he may pay by instalments in six years at 10s. an acre.

And with a view of encouraging the immigration of persons who are in a position to pay for their own passage to Canterbury, it is proposed to refund to them in land scrip, receivable at any sale of Government land within the province, the cost of their passages according to a scale declared in the regulations.

CANTERBURY.

Whether this arrangement has yet become the law of land sales in Canterbury cannot be ascertained until the end of the second session of the Provincial Council now in progress; but in the meantime, it may be taken for granted that the price of land within the boundaries of the province, is £3. an acre payable as above mentioned; and beyond the boundaries, 10s. an acre. The average price of land to be sold by private parties in Canterbury varies between £2. 10s. and £7 an acre. The vendor at the lower prices sells at a sacrifice on the cost price, his land being probably of bad quality, or inconveniently situated. Occasionally in exceptional cases small lots are sold considerably above the higher price. But probably the fairer average would be to take £4. an acre as the selling price of any large tracts of land in the market for sale by private owners; £3. an acre for land hitherto unsold by Government within the boundaries, and 10s an acre for land beyond the boundaries of the Canterbury block.

COMPARISON BETWEEN NEW ZEALAND AND OTHER COLONIES.

In concluding this chapter on the price of land in New Zealand, it may be interesting to

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COLONIES.

some readers who have resolved to emigrate, but have been in doubt as to what colony to select for their future home, to know the opinion of practical colonists as to the comparative merits of New Zealand, the American settlements, and the lands of Australia at the present time.

Mr. Frederick Young's New Zealand circular observes:

"There is no doubt that the land in New Zealand is at least equal if not superior in fertility to that of any other of our colonies, or of the United States, and that it has better markets for its produce, whilst in other respects it possesses advantages, rendering it superior to them all. For instance, in New Zealand the winter is mild, and is scarcely distinguishable from the other seasons, instead of being a long six months of frost and snow, as in Canada or the United States. There are no beasts of prey, no Cobra de Capellas or poisonous snakes, no murderous Caffres as at the Cape or Natal, and there are no droughts or devastating bush fires, such as occur in the Australian colonies. In New Zealand, too, convictism has not spread its moral blight as in Van Diemen's Land or New South Wales, for convicts have never been sent to New Zealand."

The following is a portion of a letter written by an East Indian, who had gone to Australia, with the intention of ending his days there. It is dated, "Melbourne, January, 1855." After

MELBOURNE.

describing the vast crowds, and the immense stores of merchandise, which arrived in Australia from Great Britain, during the previous year, the writer continues: –

"Our city and suburbs have arisen as if by magic, and now building is at a complete stand. The vast quantities of materials that were required for building purposes still come in, but they are no longer required. Tradesmen are obliged to descend to the work of a common labourer, and of the thousands of labouring men now in Melbourne, a large majority cannot get three days' work in the week. The land is completely locked. It is out of the power of the poor man to purchase at any reasonable rate. Within the last two months, upwards of 2000 have left Melbourne for New Zealand. The New Zealand Government have passed an act, which came into operation on the 1st inst., under which the waste land is sold at from 5s. to 10s. an acre, allowing a bona, fide settler five quarters to pay it in. This draws off our population, and will continue to do so for some time to come.

"House rent has fallen from 50 to 60 per cent. within the last six months; the failure of from 200 to 300 houses has contributed towards this. Everywhere you go, you see the shop windows decorated with 'selling off,' 'this shop to let,' 'retiring from business,' and so on. Stores, to my own knowledge, which let last year at £3000. per annum, are this year let for £760. Shops which let for £15. a week, are now let for £5., and hundreds are tenantless.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COLONIES.

"The digging population is not now what it used to be. Diggers are now hard-fisted in more senses of the word than one. They do not squander their money as they used to do, and strive hard to have the actual necessities of life at as low a rate as possible. The few who make money start off with it to secure a home in some other part of the world; very few settle down here. I have conversed with gentlemen who have travelled through South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, and New Zealand. All agree that New Zealand is by far the best place to settle in. As far as my own experience goes, I agree with them. I applied to this Government for 20,000 acres of land for people whom I wished to settle down upon it. I was kindly offered a special survey, but then the land must be put up to public auction, and, I believe, would not then be knocked down under 30s. an acre. Thus, I should have to pay 10 per cent., say £3000., upon the fall of the hammer, and £27,000 in thirty days! This shut me out. I applied to the Surveyor-General of New Zealand, and he offers 20,000 acres at 10s. an acre, and five years to pay it in; meantime, a rent of 6d. per annum per acre. New Zealand supplies Melbourne with potatoes, corn, &c., and can always undersell a Victoria farmer."

The following comparison between Canada and New Zealand, is from a letter written by a settler now resident in New Zealand, who had formerly been a colonist in Canada. It is

CANADA.

dated, "Wellington, New Zealand," 28th of August, 1854: –

"I will take the supposed case of a farmer and his family, consisting of four, wishing to emigrate, and debating in his mind whether the backwoods of Canada, far west of the Union, or New Zealand, is to be his future home (now I ought to know something of this, having seen them all), of course he reads all the books he can lay his hands on, as to the pros and cons, and, of course, the most plausible catches him. He perhaps goes to Canada, and settles down in the midst of dense everlasting forest, makes a clearance, breaks his back and his heart, gets the "shakes" in the autumn, and is utterly miserable all winter. In the spring he returns to the axe, and eventually may become a successful member of society; but he has had a dreadful ordeal to go through. Now I will take Windsor Park in England, as a very fair sample of the plains and forests in the far West. Let the heavy clumps of trees in the park represent the everlasting forests, and the beautiful sloping glades, the prairies of the far West. Would any man in his senses take the clump of trees for his farm, where every tree would have to be felled, grubbed, and burnt, in preference to the sloping plain? We will take it for granted, then, that the open country is better than the wood. Now, our open country has these enormous advantages over the prairies of the far West; we have no "sickly season." Bilious and intermittent fevers go hand in hand with the new settlement in the Union; in Canada they are not so bad. With us, there

STEAM TO NEW ZEALAND.

is no such thing as fever, even in the worst positions. The cause, I think, is apparent, viz., that instead of the luxuriant green grasses of the West, we have the whole open country fern, rushes, flax, or evergreens. Consequently, there is no mass of decaying vegetation in the autumn, the sickly season of America. Now, in all parts of this country, the vegetation dies on the stem, nor do they fall to the ground at all during the autumn, but at various times through the winter and spring. The soil also is a dry sandy loam, 47 and there is a very great quantity of volcanic dust spread over by far the greater half of the country. We have also occasional gales of wind blowing from sea to sea. Doubtless all these things tend to health. We have also a far higher price for provisions than America has. True the passage out costs about one-third more than going to the West; but the extra price [obtained] for produce and labour will make that up in six months. In short, you see clearly, by this time, that I am hollow in favour of this place.
Adieu. – Yours truly, S. W.

STEAM COMMUNICATION.

There can be little doubt that, in the course of a very short time, the length of time occupied in the voyage between New Zealand and Great Britain will be very materially abridged. There is now constant communication by steam between Australia and New Zealand, and in each of the settlements a sum has been voted for

STEAM COMMUNICATION.

promoting communication by steam, not only between the different provinces of New Zealand, but also, by arrangement with the fast sailing steamers plying to Australia, with the view of hastening the communication between Europe and the shores of New Zealand.

In January last, the Provincial Council of Auckland purchased a steamer, the "William Denny," to run regularly between Auckland and Australia. An arrangement has also very lately been entered into by the Superintendents of Nelson and Wellington to lay on another steamer to ply between those provinces and Sydney for the current year, and to raise a subsidy of £6000. The colonists of Canterbury have also held meetings for the furtherance of a similar project.

The following advertisement of the fares of a steamer, now plying between the different ports of New Zealand, is taken from a Nelson newspaper of last January.

STEAMER NELSON.

The undersigned having made arrangements with the various Provincial Governments to run Messrs. Willis and Co's. splendid new iron screw steamer, the 'Nelson,' 300 tons, Martin, master, between the settlements of New Zealand, beg to inform the public that

STEAM COMMUNICATION.

the following scale of chief-cabin fares has been determined upon:

£.

s.

d.

Between Manakau and New Plymouth

5

0

0

" " " Nelson

7

10

0

" " " Wellington

10

0

0

" " " Victoria 1

12

10

0

" " " Otago

15

0

0

" Nelson and New Plymouth

5

0

0

" " " Wellington

5

0

0

" " " Victoria

7

10

0

" " " Otago

10

0

0

" Wellington and New Plymouth

7

10

0

" " " Victoria

5

0

0

" " " Otago

7

10

0

" New Plymouth and Otago

12

10

0

" " " Victoria

10

0

0

" Victoria and Otago

5

0

0

1   Victoria is the official name of Port Lyttelton in Canterbury. Port Phillip, in Australia, is also now called Victoria.

Spirits, wines, and beer not included, but which may be purchased on board.

Fore-cabin fares, one-third less.

The various ports will be visited with the least possible delay, and in regular order, with the exception of Otago, which will be visited every third trip. She will sail punctually to her advertised time on all occasions, weather permitting.

The 'Nelson' has been built expressly for the inter-colonial trade of New Zealand; is handsomely fitted;

STEAM COMMUNICATION.

bedding is provided, and every convenience for the comfort of passengers.

For rates of freight, days of sailing, or other information, application is requested to be made to –

Messrs. Brown and Campbell . . Auckland.

Messrs. Bethune and Hunter . . Wellington

Mr. J. H. Le Cren......Victoria.

Messrs. James Macandrew and Co. Otago.

Or, Messrs. Lllewlyn, Nash, and Co. . New Plymouth.

ANDREW FELL AND CO.

Nelson, Jan. 17, 1855.

44 This of course does not refer to Town lots, or others similarly situated – the prices of which are very much higher, and vary according to circumstances.

45 The passages printed in small type are condensed from an Article published in the Australian and New Zealand Gazette of Nov. 1854.

46 The report of a recently decided case affecting the New Zealand Company, may perhaps interest some of my readers. It is taken from "The Times" of July 12, 1855, and is as follows:
July 10, 1855.
(Before Vice-Chancellor Sir W. P. WOOD.)
SOAMES v. CURRIE – THE NEW ZEALAND COMPANY.

This was a question as to the mode of distributing among the shareholders a fund remaining in the hands of the directors, after payment of debts, under the following circumstances: – The above Company was originally constituted in 1839, with a capital of £100,000., in 4000 shares of £25 each. Upon this being paid a charter was obtained, reciting that £100,000. was obtained, and that divers persons had entered into a subscription towards raising the further sum of £200,000. That was not strictly the case, as the subscription contract for the £200,000. was dated after the date of the charter; but in May, 1841, at a meeting, the increase of the capital was ratified. That capital, it was agreed, should be provided in 8000 shares of £25. each, of which only one-half was to be paid up, except by the consent of a general meeting. The original shares were from that time called "old shares," and those shares, upon which only one-half was paid, were called "new shares." The distribution of dividends was always pro rata, and the holders of new shares received per share half the amount paid to the holders of the old shares. By the Act of 10 and 11 Victoria, c. 112, money was advanced by Government for a period of three years, and by the 19th section, power was given to the Company, at any time within three months after the 5th of April, 1850, to give notice to the Government of their readiness to surrender their charters and all claim to any land granted to them, and thereupon, all powers and privileges, except such as were necessary to enable the directors to wind up the affairs of the Company in the manner contemplated by the Act, were to cease and determine; and by section 20, the directors were to receive £268,370. 15s., with interest at 3 1/2 per cent., out of the moneys received by the Government for the sale of land in the colony. The Company gave the notice provided by the statute; and since that period, various sums had been paid by the Government, out of which the unsatisfied debts of the Company had been paid, leaving, in May, 1855, a clear balance in the hands of the directors of about £20,000. to be divided among the shareholders; and the mode of dividing this sum was the question for the Court.

Mr. Rolt and Mr. Shapter appeared for the plaintiff, and claimed, on behalf of the old shareholders, that the sum should be applied entirely among the old shareholders, so as to reduce the amount paid by them upon their shares down to the amount paid by the new shareholders, treating the amount paid up by the old shareholders, beyond the half of their shares, as money paid in advance of calls.

Mr. Daniel and Mr. Amphlett, for the directors, contended that the sum ought to be distributed into two equal portions, and one such portion to be applied rateably among the old and the other among the new shareholders.

The Vice-Chancellor decided that, so far as the sum now in question was to be taken as interest, it ought to be applied rateably among all the shareholders; but with respect to the application of the amount in hand, to pay off the capital, he would give judgment the following day.

July 11, 1855.
The Vice-Chancellor finally disposed of this case, and, after adverting to the terms of the charter and the several Acts of Parliament, said that it could not be supposed that there was any probability of a deficiency of assets, especially as £200,000., it was stated, would have to be received from Government. Additional capital had been raised, to which the old shareholders must be taken to have consented. His Honour therefore made a declaration that, according to the true construction of the charter granted to the Company, their Deed in 1841, and their Acts of Parliament (regard being had to the dealings of the Company in respect of the dividends which had been from time to time declared), the £12,000. received in pursuance of the Company's Act of 1850, as well as further sums to be received, ought to be divided among the shareholders rateably, in proportion to the sums of money paid by the shareholders on their shares.

47 The writer dates his letter from Wellington.

CHAPTER XV. CONCLUSION.

CHAPTER XV.

CONCLUSION.

IN the preceding pages an attempt has been made to sketch the early history of New Zealand, and the gradual arrival of English settlers in the country. Some account has been given of the general appearance of the country and the chief occupations of those who seek to find in it better fortunes than they have quitted, and a few words of advice are offered to the emigrant making his preparations for the journey. I have mentioned the prospects in store for labourers desirous of emigrating, and have referred them to the places in London where they may apply for assistance in the outward voyage, and have lastly endeavoured to enable the reader to judge of the comparative merits of New Zealand, and of colonies in other parts of the world. I have not exaggerated the pleasures, nor I hope discouraged the reader by alluding to the drawbacks and disadvantages which must be encountered in a colonist's life in New Zealand;

MR. GODLEY'S ADDRESS, 1852.

and as I am fully convinced of the truth and sincerity of every word which I am about to quote, I feel that I cannot better conclude this notice of its prospects and resources than by some extracts from a speech delivered in the country itself, in December, 1852.

Mr. Godley, by whom these words were spoken in reply to an address presented to him by the colonists of Canterbury, previous to embarking on his return to England; was for four years chief agent in New Zealand for the Canterbury Association, and was most justly esteemed and beloved by all who had the advantage of his experience and friendship.

I may premise, that although Mr. Godley speaks only to an audience in Canterbury, there is no part of New Zealand to which his words are not applicable; and I would particularly recommend to the reader's attention those passages in his speech in which he alludes to the causes of failure and disappointment to some emigrants, who, by a little forethought, while yet in England, might have avoided for themselves and their families many unlooked for and unmerited hardships on the other side of the world.

After a few observations more immediately

MR. GODLEY's ADDRESS, 1852.

suited to the occasion and place, on which his address was delivered, Mr. Godley proceeds:

Considering the inexperience of the colonists, and among a large proportion of them the want of sufficient means to meet their habitual requirements, there have been wonderfully few instances of actual failure, wonderfully few instances of men who are unable to look forward (through struggles no doubt, and privations; but still to look forward) to an ultimate and certain competence. I know there are many who will not take this view, and who will feel more or less angry with me for expressing it, as though I insulted their disappointments. Yet, at the risk of offending them, I must remind them that though there have been cruel and undeserved disappointments there have been also many which were caused by people expecting impossibilities. I don't blame them for it, for to a great extent I did so myself; but such is the fact. They expected that such an edifice of civilisation as it has taken many laborious centuries to build up at home, could be created in a few months out here; while they expected in addition to this, that a capital, of which the interest would not have supplied them with the commonest necessaries of life in England, would provide for them and their families, when invested in New Zealand, not only necessaries but luxuries in profussion, without difficulty or anxiety, almost without toil. I will not say that I have not been disappointed in many things myself. No man in this world can go through any enterprise that has greatness in it without being often and sorely disappointed, because nothing great is ever

MR. GODLEY's ADDRESS, 1852.

done without enthusiasm, and enthusiasts are always over-sanguine."

Mr. Godley then describes the ideal picture which he had drawn in his own mind of the possible condition of a new colony in New Zealand, and the difference which his actual experience as a colonist had taught him, between the rather highly coloured picture of the colony of his imagination, and the reality. He then proceeds:

"But I am not at all sure that the reality, though less showy, is not, in many respects, sounder and better than the dream. Take, for example, that common notion which so many educated and intelligent people have of colonization – the notion that it will enable them to live a sort of careless, indolent, easy-going life, under their vines and their fig-trees, among their children and their flowers, to revel in the spontaneous plenty of an exuberant soil, and to enjoy all the luxuries of civilization without its responsibilities, its restraints, and its labour. This is the kind of life that many of us fondly dreamed of. I will not say I did not sometimes dream of it myself. But would this, even if it were not out of the question, be a life worthy of a man – of an Englishman? Is the desire to fly from toil and trouble a worthy motive for colonization? Should not our motive rather be a desire to find a freer scope and a more promising object for our toil and our trouble? We all know that when men colonize, more, perhaps, than in any other walk of life, they have to eat their

MR. GODLEY'S ADDRESS, 1852.

bread in the sweat of their face. But this is the advantage, and pride, and glory of colonization. It is the corroding evil of old and highly peopled countries, that in them, whole classes, from the sybarite peer to the workhouse pauper, have this curse hanging heavy on their lives, – that they have nothing to do; and this it is that justifies us in urging men to emigrate, that in new countries every man must find something to do. I have seen here clergymen ploughing, and barristers digging, and officers of the army and navy riding in stock, and no one thought the worse of them, but the contrary. The principle, then, which is the business of colonizers to assert is the nobility of work, – work of any kind, so that it is hard and honest work; and a sound and true principle it is, though it has its own dangers and abuses, against which colonists will do well to guard. But this is digression. To return to what I was saying. I trust I shall be pardoned for quoting in support of what I say, two or three cases which have come lately to my personal knowledge, and which I have no reason at all to suppose extraordinary, or out of the way. One is the case of a gentleman of good family and education, who landed in this colony with a and order for 50 acres and £300. He has now horse and cattle alone to the value of his original capital £300. He has built an excellent house, has fourteen acres fenced and cropped, and owns 400 sheep and lambs, and, moreover, he does not owe a farthing in the world. The next instance is that of a man whose capital was still smaller. I was informed it was just £30. He had 50 acres of land, and a large family – two grown up sons. I visited his farm the other day,

THE GOLD FIELDS OF AUSTRALIA.

and found the whole of it fenced in and divided into five separate fields, all with substantial fences. He has a comfortable house, a particularly neat and well cropped garden, two cows and their calves, several pigs, and no less than 27 acres, including the garden, under crop, and, I am happy to say, I never saw crops looking finer or more promising. The third and last case, which I mean to quote, is this: – I was told, two days ago, by a working mechanic, a man who had no money at all when he arrived – not a farthing, that he had saved and laid by in two years, from the labour of his own hands, no less a sum than £200. Such instances as these shew that those who said that this colony would prove a fine field for the exertions of a working man, said nothing but the truth, for I happen to know that there is nothing exceptional or peculiar in the opportunities or advantages which the men whom I have referred to possess; they have simply exemplified the rewards which honest industry can reap in a new country. I have little doubt but that success of a similar kind would have been to a still greater extent the rule among our colonists, if it had not been for the discovery of the gold fields of Australia. The check that that discovery has given to our growth has, undoubtedly, been very severe. We have felt it in the price of provisions, in the emigration of labourers, above all, in the difficulty and expense of procuring stock. But my firm belief is, that within a very short period, you will begin to reap the benefit which must ultimately result from the neighbourhood of a country so enormously rich as Australia is becoming. If there be one point on which all those who have visited the diggings agree, it is this – that of

MR. GODLEY's ADDRESS, 1852.

the hundreds of thousands that have flocked thither from every part of the world, not one intends to live there. Every man intends to go as soon as he shall have made money enough. No amount of money could tempt a man deliberately to make an El Dorado his home. Now, I look upon it as mathematically certain that a very large proportion of these people will come to New Zealand. You may depend upon it, the great majority of those who have come, even with the intention of returning to England, will not return. Experience shews that when once a man, especially a young man, leaves England, and remains for a few years in a new country, he does not care to go back again for good; somehow or other, a new set of habits have been generated, not necessarily worse habits but different ones, which make the thought of a permanent residence in an old country distasteful to him, and he will rather seek for the blessings of order and civilization, if he can get them, in a neighbouring colony, than in the old world from which he has, with such an effort, uprooted himself. It is to be remembered, too, that precisely the best people among the immigrants into Australia will be likely to leave it again soon, because the best people are the least likely to be satisfied with such a state of society as a gold-producing country exhibits. I see nothing, therefore, in the Australian gold diggings to make me alter the sanguine view I have always taken of the fortunes of this colony, or to make me less satisfied with the part which I have taken in founding it."

Mr. Godley's observations upon the probable

CONCLUSION.

influence of Australia over the prospects of New Zealand have been fully borne out by recent accounts. The crowded state of Australia has already proved beneficial to the New Zealand colonists; not only by opening a market for their produce, but also from the increased facilities for sea travelling which the vast amount of shipping now visiting the Australian Seas has occasioned. It is an undisputed fact, that, but a small number of the colonists have quitted New Zealand for the Gold Diggings of Australia; and some even of those who had been tempted to visit the gold-producing country, so easily accessible from their own colony, have returned to New Zealand after a few months spent in Australia.

It has also been shewn in Chapter XIII. that of late, the vast crowds now congregated at Melbourne have in some measure contributed to supply the colonists of New Zealand with the labour of which they stand so much in need. And in further corroboration of Mr. Godley's observation made in 1852, I submit to the reader's notice the following remarks from the Lyttelton Times of June, 1854.

"Notwithstanding the attractions of the neighbouring gold fields, the population of New

CONCLUSION.

Zealand has continued to increase. During the last three years the revenue has steadily improved, and the exports of the colony, for the same period have increased with an unexampled rapidity.

"For the year 1853 the population, customs, exports, and shipping, were for the provinces of

Population.

Customs.

Exports.

Shipping,
including
Coasters.

Auckland

11,000

£30,811

£125,902

777

New Plymouth

2,000

3,311

8,613

41

Wellington

7,400

20,740

95,389

287

Nelson

5,148

5,551

45,779

69

Canterbury

3,895

5,837

14,395

57

Otago

1,800

2,276

6,344

20

"Thus it will appear that in addition to their native inhabitants (estimated to amount to 100,000 souls) these islands have now an European population of 30,000, that their customs revenue amounted for the last year (1853,) to nearly £70,000.; and that the exports for the same period, arising too, in no small proportion, from the proceeds of productive industry applied to the cultivation of the soil, amounted in value to upwards of a quarter of a million sterling."

THE END.

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